iANDSCAPE 
^GARDENING 



FRANKAWAUGH 




Gipdity_ 



COFOOGia OEFOSO: 







Holland Glen — Xeighborhood Pauk i.n Belchertown, Mass. 

Frontispiece 



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^TEXTBOOK 

OF 

LANDSCAPE GARDENING / 

DESIGNED ESPECIALLY FOR THE 

USE OF NON-PROFESSIONAL 
STUDENTS 



/by 
FRANK A, WAUGH 



Illustrated 



NEW YORK 

JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. 

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 

1922 



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HuLLA-ND Glen — Xliuhikjkhoud Pakk in Belchertowx, Mass. 

Frontispiece 



<ii!S!!i!iVS:!^i/iii:iii:^^ 



TEXTBOOK 

OF 

LANDSCAPE GARDENING / 

DESIGNED ESPECIALLY FOR THE 

USE OF NON-PROFESSIONAL 

STUDENTS 



/by 
FRANK A. WAUGH 



Illustrated 



NEW YORK 

JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. 

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 

1922 



Copy Z, 



Copyright, 1922 

BY / 

FRANK A. WAUGH 



^5.0° 




TECHNICAL COMPOSITION CO. 
CAMBRIDGE, MASS., V. S. A. 

y 

MAV I I 1922 ^ 
0)C!.A681610 ^ ^ 



'K T/' 



INSCRIPTION 

TO 

LIBERTY HYDE BAILEY 

Dear Friend: 

You have taught non-professional courses in Landscape Garden- 
ing. In this work you led the way. You have also loved the 
native landscape, and have written poems about it. 

For many years I have wished to dedicate a book to you, Writer 
of Books, Teacher of Teachers, and Believer in the Landscape but 
never having written anything worthy of such distinction I have 
desisted until now, when it appears certain that I never can produce 
such a book, but yet more certain that my respect and affection 
for you should find some formal expression. And so for these reasons 
this book is inscribed with your name, as indeed every related sub- 
ject has already been marked with your name and freshened by 
your touch. 

You may be well assured that this frail acknowledgment of 
esteem is but a tithe of all that is owed and acknowledged to you 
by your thousands of former students, in which group of fortunate 
persons I greatly rejoice to have found myself. 

FRANK A. WAUGH 
January, 1922. 



PROGRAM OF LESSONS 

Plan and Purpose of this Book 

Introductory 

1. Introduction 1 

2. General Principles 7 

3. Design 13 

4. Brick Walk .... . 17 

Surveying 

5. Scaling Plans 21 

6. Enlarging and Reducing Plans 24 

7. Paced Survey 28 

8. Use of Compass 34 

9. Compass Survey 41 

10. Leveling 45 

11. Mapping Contours 51 

Landscape Gardening Details 

12. Entrance Road 55 

13. Cemetery Entrance 58 

14. Park Entrance 61 

15. Automobile Turn 63 

16. Cemetery Lot 66 

17. Streets — Cross Sections 70 

18. Streets — General Study 75 

19. Street Trees — Varieties 78 

20. Street Trees — Technical Studies 82 

21. Street Trees — Results 85 

22. Base-ball Field . 88 

23. Tennis Court 91 

24. Bowling Green 93 

25. Village Center 96 

vii 



PROGRAM OF LESSONS 

Architectural Details 

26. Weil-Head 99 

27. Garden Seats 103 

28. Garden Gate 108 

Domestic Landscape Gardening 

29. Small House Lot 112 

30. Suburban Home Grounds 118 

31. Suburban Home Grounds 126 

32. Formal Garden 130 

33. A Garden in Natural Style 139 

34. Farmstead Group 146 

35. New England Farm Group 155 

36. Farmstead Layout 159 

Civic Problems 

37. Outdoor Theater 162 

38. Church Grounds 167 

39. Railroad Station Grounds 170 

40. Court-House Square 178 

41. Town Common 182 

42. Small Town Square 193 

43. Playground 199 

44. County Fair Grounds 203 

45. Civic Center 210 

46. Country School Grounds 216 

47. Cemetery Improvement 224 

48. Country Road Systems 231 

Plant Materials and Planting 

49. Trees 235 

50. Hardy Shrubs 242 

51. Climbing Vines 250 

52. Hardy Perennials 254 

53. Foundation Planting 261 

54. Shrubbery Border 266 

55. Mixed Border 269 

viii 



PROGRAM OF LESSONS 



Landscape 

56. The Native Landscape 272 

57. The Country Road 279 

58. Landscape Types — The Brook 288 

59. The Landscape Links 295 

60. National Parks and Forests 303 

6L State Parks 322 

62. Neighborhood Parks 332 

Literature of Landscape Gardening 338 

Index 334 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Frontispiece 

1. Landscape Gardening in the Natural Style 3 

2. The Formal Style 4 

3. A Japanese Garden 5 

4. The Brook Motive 8 

5. The Pond as a Landscape Motive 9 

6. The Mountains as a Landscape Motive 10 

7. Various Arrangements of Trees on a Lot 14 

8. Designs for Walks of Brick and Cement 18 

9. Brick Walk with Flower Border 19 

10. Architect's Scale 22 

1 1 . Proportional Dividers 26 

12. Pantograph 27 

13. Pl.\n Drawn from Paced Survey 32 

14. Types of Compasses 35 

15. Using the Pocket Transit 37 

16. Using the Prismatic Compass 42 

17. Survey as Sketched in the Field 44 

18. Using the Farm Level 46 

19. Using the Hand Level 47 

20. Profile of a Road 49 

21. Contours Interpolated 53 

22. Entrance to a Private Estate 56 

23. Plan of Cemetery Entrance 59 

24. Perspective of Cemetery Entrance 60 

25. Entrance to a Park 62 

26. Automobile Turn 64 

27. Project for Two Cemetery Lots 67 

28. Appropriate Treatment of Cemetery Lot 68 

29. Street Sections Adopted by U. S. Housing Corporation 71 

30. Connecticut State Roads 71 

31. Massachusetts State Highways 71 

32. Wide Street with Double Row of Trees 72 

33. Broad Street with Central Parking Space 73 

34. Plan for a Residence Street in a Village 75 

35. Pin Oaks in Early Winter 79 

36. Palmettos on a Street in Savannah 79 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



37. Live Oak in Savannah 80 

38. Good Location of Sidewalk 83 

39. The Arching American Elms 86 

40. Standard Base-ball Field 89 

4L Standard Plan of Tennis Court 91 

42. Plan of Circular Bowling Green 94 

43. Village Center, Weston, Mass 97 

44. Village Center Looking North 98 

45. Studies for a Well-Head 100 

46. Perspective Sketch of Well-Head 101 

47. Simple Rustic Well-Head 102 

48. Picturesque Well-Head 102 

49. Sketch for a Practical Garden Seat 104 

50. A Good Seat 105 

51. Excellent Type of Cement Seat 105 

52. Home-made Garden Seat of Cement 106 

53. Rustic Park Seat 106 

54. Wooden Park Bench 107 

55. Plain Gate of Matched Lumber 108 

56. Sketch Design for Simple Garden Gate 109 

57. Old Fashioned Wooden Gate 109 

58. Rose Arch used as Garden Entrance 110 

59. A California Garden Gate Ill 

60. Design for Small Home Grounds 113 

61. Front View of House and Grounds 114 

62. Cosy Small Home Grounds 115 

63. Dwarf Fruit Trees 116 

64. Plan of Typical American Suburban Home Grounds 119 

65. Drawing Rendered in Color 121 

66. Cottage Residence 123 

67. The Flower Garden 124 

68. Design for Large Suburban Lot 127 

69. Flowering Dogwood on the Lawn 128 

70. General Plan of Formal Garden 131 

71. The House as seen from the Garden 131 

72. The Garden Gate and Rose Arch 132 

73. The Bird Bath 132 

74. The Garden Seat 132 

75. Plan of a Famous Formal Garden 134 

76. General View of a Formal Garden 135 

77. Village Home Grounds in the Natural Style 140 

78. Plan of Garden in the Natural Style 143 

xii 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



79. Garden in the Natural Style 144 

80. General Plan of Iowa Farmstead 147 

81. View from Main Entrance 149 

82. View of Residence and Garage 152 

83. Typical New England Farm Group 156 

84. View from the South, Farm Group 157 

85. Idealized Farmstead 160 

86. Outdoor Theater at Anoka, Minn 163 

87. Plan of Outdoor Theater 165 

88. Design for Improvement of Church Grounds 168 

89. Church Grounds — Existing Entr.\nce 169 

90. Well-Treated Railroad Station Grounds 171 

91. Simple Layout of Railroad Station Grounds 172 

92. Railroad Station Grounds (colored drawing) 175 

93. Typical Court-House Square 180 

94. A Large Town Common of the Rectangular Type 186 

95. Small Town Common, Triangular Type 190 

96. Forsyth Park, Savannah 194 

97. Treatment of City Square in Minneapolis 197 

98. Plan of Playground, Hardin Square, Chicago 199 

99. Perspective Sketch and Playground 200 

100. Typical City Playfiei.d, Minneapolis 201 

101. Modern County Fair Grounds in Iowa 204 

102. Aeroplane View Clay County Fair Grounds 206 

103. Civic Center, San Francisco 211 

104. Design for a Civic Center 212 

105. A Rural Civic Center 214 

106. A Clean and Orderly Schoolground 217 

107. Improvement Plan for Rural School 218 

108. Country School Grounds with Playground and Gardens . 220 

109. Chapel and Plantings, Graceland Cemetery 225 

1 10. The Neglected Cemetery 226 

111. An Ancient Churchyard Cemetery 227 

112. Typical Road Plan in Government Survey Area 232 

113. Typical Section of New England Roads 233 

1 14. The American Elm 236 

115. Soulang's Magnolia 237 

116. The Sugar Maple 238 

117. Bur Oak in Winter Dress 239 

118. The Springtime Show of Lilacs 243 

119. Rhododendrons in Flower 244 

120. The Native Prairie Rose 246 

xiii 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



121. Withe-Rod 248 

122. AcTiNiDiA AND Trumpet Vine 251 

123. Clematis 252 

124. Day Lily 255 

125. Japanese Gold-Banded Lily 256 

126. Peony Festiva Maxima 258 

127. Sunflowers 259 

128. Foundation Plantings 262 

129. Good Foundation Plantings on Home Grounds 263 

130. Foundation Plantings Including Vines 264 

131. Screen and Border 267 

132. Study for a Mixed Border 270 

133. Lizard Head Peak, Colorado 273 

134. Multnomah Falls, Oregon 274 

135. A Canadian Lake 275 

136. Grain Fields in Colorado 277 

137. Map of Road 280 

138. The Curving Country Road 281 

139. Junipers along the Pasture Fence 281 

140. Across the Fields 282 

141. Looking Across the Valley 282 

142. The Farm House 283 

143. A Drink at the Pump 284 

144. The Cornfield 285 

145. In the Thick of the Woods 286 

146. Where the Brook Sings to the Stones 289 

147. A Quiet Pool 290 

148. The Trout Pool 293 

149. The Fisherman Brews Some Tea 293 

150. The Cornfield 296 

151. Upland — Fields and Woods 296 

152. A Sunny Road 297 

153. White Oaks and Sweet Fern 297 

154. Young Hickories 299 

155. Young White Pines 299 

156. Old Pine Tree 301 

157. Old Faithful at Sunrise 304 

158. Piegan Mountain 305 

159. Rocky Mountain National Park 307 

160. In Camp 312 

161. Dolly Copp Camp Ground 313 

162. Rainbow Bridge, Arizona 316 

xiv 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



163. Waterson Point, New York 322 

164. Turkey Run, Indiana 327 

165. Sugar Loaf Mountain, Massachusetts 330 

166. A Dark Pool in Holland Glen 333 

167. The Mossy Rocks 334 

168. Where the Trail Goes In 335 



PLAN AND PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK 

This book is designed for the instruction of non-professional 
students in landscape gardening, that is for those who do not intend 
to become professional landscape gardeners. At the same time the 
author sincerely hopes that the book will not turn any good men 
away from the profession. 

The book has been prepared with certain definite objects in 
view, as follows: 

1. To teach the principles of universal art, viz. the principles 
of order and design. For the most part these subjects are here intro- 
duced in concrete problems rather than in abstract statements of 
principles. 

2. To give a working understanding of these principles as 
applied in the art of landscape gardening. 

3. To apply the principles of landscape gardening to the do- 
mestic problems of the average citizen. 

4. To apply the principles of landscape gardening to civic 
problems. 

5. In this way to arouse an intelligent and constructive interest 
in civic problems, and to offer a practical working basis of citizen- 
ship. 

6. To bring the student into intelligent contact with the native 
landscape; to give a key to the unsurpassable and omnipresent 
beauty of the native landscape; to indicate the great personal and 
social value of the landscape; to indicate what should be done by 
nations, states and communities for the preservation and use of 
the native landscape. 



PLAN AND PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK 

Methods 

The plan of this book is to teach the necessary lessons through 
the active work of the student upon concrete problems. It is essen- 
tial that the student should come into direct contact with these 
problems and should do the work with his own hands and mind. 
He is then likely to secure such information as he can use and re- 
member such as he uses. 

Open discussions amongst the members of the class are spe- 
cifically suggested in several lessons and may profitably be under- 
taken on many others. It is hoped that an intelligent and sym- 
pathetic teacher will usually be at hand to direct the discussions 
but not to monopolize them. It is vitally important in a subject 
of this sort that the student should express himself rather than to 
accept dictation from anyone. Authority, which has a high place 
in morals and religion, is of doubtful value in science, and of no value 
whatever in art. 

The Field 

The subject of landscape gardening, even in its non-professional 
aspects, involves a wide range of material. A word should be said 
about the resources upon which it is necessary to draw. 

1. Surveying and engineering: The student must know some- 
thing of simple surveying and engineering. It is quite possible that 
a college student will get this information in some other course, 
perhaps in farm engineering and surveying. When such instruction 
is elsewhere provided it may naturally be omitted from the present 
course. 

2. Drawing is the regular language of the landscape gardener. 
Every student must do some sort of mapping, plan making and 
designing. Quite possibly this will be available in other courses. 
If it is not some attention must be paid to it here. 

3. Plant materials: Some acquaintance with trees, shrubs, 
vines and hardy herbaceous materials will be necessary for any 



PLAN AND PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK 

student of landscape gardening. It has been the custom however 
in many schools to magnify this branch of the subject out of pro- 
portion to the other phases of landscape gardening. In some schools 
this knowledge of plant materials is available in other courses, and 
in such cases this section of the present book may be omitted. The 
plan of having this subject handled in a separate course is to be 
strongly recommended. 

4. Architectural materials and methods must be used more or 
less in landscape gardening. Professional students nearly always 
take collateral courses in architecture. The non-professional stu- 
dent should give such attention to this subject as time and op- 
portunity make possible. 

5. Principles of design: These principles are universal and 
are sometimes well taught in departments of drawing or under the 
name of industrial design, home decoration or other characteriz- 
ations. These principles are exceedingly important and all em- 
phasis should be placed upon their study. 

6. Domestic problems of landscape gardening involving the ap- 
plication of the principles of design to home grounds, farms and estates: 
This field is sometimes assumed to constitute the whole subject of 
landscape gardening and a number of books have been written on 
these particular topics. It is desirable at the present time merely 
to keep this branch of landscape gardening in its proper relation 
to other branches of the subject. 

7. Civic art, including city planning, regional planning and 
countn>^ planning, constitutes a large and highly important ap- 
plication of the principles of landscape gardening. 

8. The native landscape not only forms the foundation of 
landscape gardening but also supplies a reservoir of beauty upon 
which the human race has drawn from the beginning of time and 
which is now of the utmost importance to our national culture. 
This natural landscape is therefore one of the principal subjects of 
study in the field of landscape gardening. 

It will be understood at once therefore that the subject of 



PLAN AND PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK 

landscape gardening covers a large and varied field. In a short 
course of one term, or even of one year, it will be impossible to ex- 
haust the isubject in all its different phases. If some portions of the 
material can be temporarily detached for study in other courses the 
time thus gained may be advantageously applied to the remainder. 
In any case it will seem desirable to the teacher and the student to 
emphasize certain phases of the subject, giving less attention to 
others. 

Laying out the Course 

The necessity for this selection will be understood further 
through a simple calculation in arithmetic. The present book offers 
62 chapters, the slightest of which will make an adequate lesson for 
any class, while the larger chapters contain materials and problems 
enough to occupy ten or a dozen lessons. We may perhaps estimate 
that the material here offered will be sufficient for 150 substantial 
class exercises. 

Yet this is not all. It is exceedingly important to the plan of 
this book that the work of the student shall take hold upon the 
neighborhood in which he finds himself. Teacher and student 
should therefore strive to develop all the practical problems of the 
neighborhood, whether they are specifically outlined in the text or 
not. If the teacher therefore has reasonable enterprise and im- 
agination he will add a considerable number of exercises to those 
here outlined. 

Now a one-semester college or high-school course having three 
exercises a week cannot possibly handle more than 48 exercises. 
If the course in landscape gardening is continued for an entire year 
it will still be impossible to have more than 96 exercises, and this 
number will probably be considerably diminished through the usual 
exigencies of examination periods, vacations and the like. 

Under these circumstances it will be necessary for each teacher 
at the beginning of the course to outline a program of exercises 
equal to the number of periods at his disposal. This program will 



PLAN AND PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK 

of course include any exercises of his own invention. It may be 
hoped that the student will not altogether neglect the exercises 
which are not assigned and required. Any intelligent student who 
uses this text-book for three or four months is pretty apt to know a 
good deal about its entire contents. If the course is as successful 
as it ought to be and the interest of the student is thoroughly awak- 
ened, he will naturally exhaust the text-book and reach out for 
other sources of information, which indeed exist in great abundance. 
Finally the author wishes the teacher and student the utmost 
pleasure in the study of the fascinating subject of landscape garden- 
ing. 



LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



LESSON 1 
Introduction 




HE purpose of this lesson is to define certain ele- 
mentary terms and present certain general princi- 
ples necessary to an understanding of subsequent 
lessons. 

Definition 

Landscape gardening (called also landscape 
architecture, landscape engineering or landscape design) is the art 
of improving land for human use and enjoyment in such a manner 
as to combine the maximum of utility with the maximum of beauty. 

Art 

In this definition the term art signifies fine art in distinction 
from the practical arts or hand-crafts. The definition implies that 
landscape gardening is a sister art with painting, sculpture, archi- 
tecture and music. There are, in fact, may points of close resem- 
blance amongst all these arts. 

Art is the pursuit of beauty. The effort to realize beauty in 
any medium is art. Sweet sounds harmoniously combined con- 
stitute music; beautiful or noble ideas beautifully expressed in 
metrical language are poetry; beautiful forms and colors pleasingly 
united on canvas are painting; beautiful trees, hills and water 
arranged to make an attractive picture are landscape gardening. 
Beauty is the end of art. 

1 



TEXTBO OK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Every work of art must be pleasing to the senses. Music 
pleases the ear; good landscape pleases the eye. This element of 
sensuous pleasure is essential. It has sometimes been argued that 
art must satisfy the intelligence; also that it must satisfy the moral 
judgment. Neither statement is true. Art is independent of logic 
and of morals, though either one may be brought in at times to the 
manifest advantage of art. 

Art is to be understood as distinguished from science. "Science 
is classified knowledge." Art is the pursuit of beauty. Science 
seeks to know the truth, to defend the truth and to overthrow what 
is false. Art strives only to know what is beautiful, to defend the 
beautiful, and to rid the world of everything ugly. 

The Field 

Landscape gardening has for its field of operations "all outdoors" 
in a quite literal sense. Some of the main purposes, however, are 
the following: (1) To improve home grounds in order that the 
exterior of every home shall be clean, orderly and beautiful. (2) 
To improve public grounds in the same way and for the same reasons. 
This branch of landscape gardening is called Civic Art (see Lessons 
37-48). (3) To select, protect, and make accessible the best examples 
and types of the native landscape, as is done in National and State 
parks (see Lessons 56-62). (4) To interpret the beauty of the 
landscape. 

Styles 

It is customary to recognize several different styles in landscape 
gardening. Style may be defined as the national or racial quality 
in landscape gardening. In this art the word style has a meaning 
wholly different from that given to it in the other arts, especially in 
literature. 

The styles usually mentioned are the English, the Italian and 
the Japanese; but there exist, at least theoretically, also a Chinese 
style, a Persian style, an Egyptian style, etc. The English, Italian 

2 



INTRODUCTION 



and Japanese styles have sometimes been called respectively the 
natural, the formal or architectural and the picturesque. This 
synonomy is verj^ superficial and should generally be avoided. 




Fig. 1. Landscape Gardening in the Natural Style 



More logically stated the natural or informal method on the 
one hand and the architectural or formal on the other, are not 
styles at all, but fundamental garden forms. Any of the properly 
national styles may be either formal or informal. As a matter of 
fact the formal and the informal methods have both been used suc- 
cessfully both in Italy and in England 

3 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

These distinctions, however, are somewhat abstruse and hardly 
necessary to the work of the beginner. The young student may 
safely speak of formal gardening and of the natural style because 
these terms are in common use even though they are slightly illogical. 




Fig. 2. The Formal iStyle — California. Photograph ijy John W. Gregg 



Utility and Beauty 

Another phrase in our definition should have a short examin- 
ation. We have said that our object in landscape gardening is to 
secure the maximum of utility combined with the maximum of 
beauty. It is sometimes assumed that utihty and beauty are con- 
flicting qualities and that beauty is necessarily marred whenever 
we intrude anything "practical" or merely useful. This idea is 
absolutely wrong and mischievous. The fundamental truth is the 
exact opposite, viz. that the maximum of beauty can be realized 
only when practical requirements have been fully met. So radical 
is this principle that some of the great philosophers have held that 
this satisfaction of practical utilities is the sole foundation of beauty. 

In common experience we certainly do find many instances in 
which practical utilities are far from beautiful. A steel smokestack, 
an iron bridge, a wooden silo are almost certain to be ugly. But 

4 



INTRODUCTION 



there are inofTensive smokestacks, noble and beautiful bridges 
and distinctly good-looking siloes. And the beautiful smokestacks, 
bridges and siloes are just as useful as the ugliest ones ever built. 

It is often thought that a large part of landscape gardening is 
directed to covering up and disguising unsightly but necessary ob- 
jects. Unfortunately work of this sort has to be done sometimes: 
— we seldom find perfectly ideal conditions in this present world; 
but our first effort should always be to render every useful object 
beautiful instead of merely trying to hide it. Particularly repre- 
hensible is the practice of covering up dirty and unsanitary nuisances 
by such means as planting screens of "ornamental" trees and shrubs. 
As though a garbage dump could be ornamented! 




Fig. 3. A Japanese Garden. The Japanese Style in Japan 

Readings 
The pupil will easily find innumerable books on art and enough 
on landscape gardening, some good, many indifferent, others worth- 

5 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

less. He should read as many good books on art as possible. In 
the field of landscape gardening a large and valuable literature is 
available. Some of the most important works are listed in the 
Bibliography at the close of this book; these and other books on 
the subject should be read and digested as opportunity oilers. 




LESSON 2 

General Principles 

HERE are certain general principles underlying all 
art, including landscape gardening. The most 
important of these principles must now be stated 
and should be given careful study by the pupil. 

Unity 

The first principle of all art is unity. This 
means that each work of art, large or small, must have one and only 
one meaning, and that every part shall contribute to this meaning. 
Stated in physical terms, all parts must be organized into one body, 
each part being completely subordinate to the interests of the whole. 
Every part which does not assist in this central effect must be 
expunged, no matter how beautiful or interesting it may be in it- 
self. 

The extreme term in unity is monotony. When only one color, 
only one tone, only one figure is used the result may be monotonous. 
A garden planted with nothing but hollyhocks or a cemetery set 
exclusively with red cedars would probably be monotonous. Even 
so it is better to have monotony than to lose unity; and in particular 
cases monotony is the height of artistic achievement. 

The elimination of diverse colors, and forms therefore tends 
toward unity, or at least toward simplicity, which is also desirable 
in itself. Nearly all landscape gardening shows too many forms, 
too many colors, too many different kinds of plants. The instances 
in which unity is carried too far toward monotony are so rare that 
they are doubly interesting as curiosities. 

Unity is frequently secured through the development of utilities. 
If ever>^ part of a work of landscape gardening has a definite and 

7 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

obvious practical purpose this dominating purpose reconciles all 
parts and unifies the whole. 

In actual practice the most powerful means of securing unity 
lies in adopting a clear-cut motive (see below) and adhering rigidly 
to it. 

Variety 

Next to unity stands variety as a fundamental necessity in art. 
Indeed art is sometimes defined as unity in variety. To make a 
work of art permanently interesting and pleasing a certain amount 
of variety is needful. 




The Brook Motive 



Obviously there is a certain antagonism between unity and 
variety. Either one would be comparatively easy to achieve if the 
other could be disregarded. Yet the two are not incompatible. 
It is nearly always possible to secure both in the same composition. 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES 



It is possible but not always easy, for the greatest skill of the artist 
is required to this precise end, viz. to bring together many various 
elements into one harmonious whole. The beginner need not be 
surprised or discouraged if he is unable at first to accomplish all 
that the best artists can 
accomplish, but he should , ^, 
have faith to beheve that 
a satisfying solution may 
be reached even in the 
face of great difTiculties. 

In landscape garden- 
ing variety is particularly 
easy to reach — so easy in 
fact that it is nearly al- 
ways overdone. The land- 
scape gardener is able to 
gain variety in the follow- 
ing ways, amongst others : 
(1) in topography and 
ground forms; (2) in grad- 
ing land; (3) in the infin- 
ite number of trees, shrubs 
and flowers at his disposal ; 
(4) in their varied forms, 
and (5) colors, and (6) in 
the endless combinations 
in which they may be 
grouped; (7) in the intro- 
duction of architectural and sculptural embeUishments; (8) in the 
use of water, still or flowing (9) in changes of season, of weather and 
of the hours of the day. 

The landscape gardener must have all these resources at his 

command, but he must use them with great restraint or he will 

presently find that he has sacrificed his last opportunity for unity 

of effect. 

9 




Fig. 5. The Pond as a Landscape Motive 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



Motive 

Every worth-while work of art has a subject, theme or motive. 
In landscape gardening the term motive is perhaps most eligible, 
though all three words mean the same thing. Everyone is familiar 
with the theme or subject in literature, and those who have studied 




G. I'm; MijuNTAiNs a^ a Landscape Motive. Photograph by Fred C. Sears 

music should understand what is meant by a musical theme. It is 
also reasonably clear that any painting must have some sort of sub- 
ject. 

It is somewhat difficult however to state exactly what is a land- 
scape gardening motive. Let us illustrate by saying that a park 
at Niagara Falls could hardly do anything else than exhibit the 
Falls. That would necessarily be the theme or motive. So a more 

10 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES 



commonplace park running along a mile of some minor stream would 
nevertheless find the stream beautiful, would strive primarily to 
exhibit the beauties of the stream — would in short adopt the stream 
as its motive. That park would be the story of Paint Creek or 
Duck River just as truly as "Hamlet" is the story of Hamlet. 

It is impossible here to expound the principles upon which 
landscape motives are chosen and worked out. It may be barely 
suggested that, as a rule, in each landscape tract of land developed 
the selected motive is presented in a series of paragraphs or epi- 
sodes. In each paragraph some difTerent treatment is given to the 
motive. For illustration let us imagine four paragraphs of the 
Paint Creek motive suggested above. In the first picture we might 
see the rapids with the water singing over the stones; at the second 
paragraph we might see flat quiet water with stately beech trees 
reflected from the opposite shore; at the third paragraph we might 
cross the stream over a bridge getting a long view down the channel 
toward a distant hill; at the fourth paragraph, at the bend of the 
creek, where the old Indian camp used to be, the park maker might 
introduce two or three Indian tepees, always of great pictorial value, 
and these would serve to recall the history and legends of Paint 
Creek. 

Analogy 

The youthful pupil in high school or college will find the analogy 
between rhetoric and landscape gardening particularly suggestive 
at this point. He has been taught to write essays, compositions or 
"themes." He has been taught the demands of unity — has learned 
to stick strictly to one subject. At the same time he has been 
taught to give the subject varied treatment, sometimes serious, 
sometimes witty, sometimes statistical, sometimes poetic. Finally 
he has been taught to treat his theme paragraphically. Each 
paragraph must have a quality of its own but it must first of all 
bear directly upon the theme in hand. Landscape gardening and 
literature come very close together in all these points. 

11 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Exercises 

1. Select some piece of landscape gardening in the immediate 
vicinity, preferably the best example available. Examine this 
critically with respect to unity and variety. Indicate exactly where 
unity has been gained and where it has been lost; also where de- 
sirable variety begins to be undesirable. It is important in this 
exercise to discover the maximum of good. Much less emphasis 
should be placed upon defects. 

2. Select some tract of park or comparatively wild land in 
the vicinity. Study this with care endeavoring to select a land- 
scape motive most natural to the tract. Define this motive in 
writing. Then project three to six separate episodes or paragraphs, 
describing just where and how the several episodes might be de- 
veloped. 

References 

Hubbard and Kimball, Landscape Design, Xcw York, 1917. 

Waugh, Landscape Gardening. Xcw York, 1900. 

Downing, Landscape Gardening, Chap. II, Xcw York, 1921. 



12 



LESSOX 




Design 

HE purpose of this lesson is to develop the idea 
of design and to give the pupil a few elementan,' 
exercises dealing with problems in this field. 

It has already been explained in lesson 1 
that landscape gardening is an art which seeks 
to promote beauty. One of the principal aids to 
beauty is order, and order is achieved by design. 



Definition 

Design might be defined as the orderly arrangement of all the 
elements in a given area. The best design is that which achieves 
the greatest degree of order, and the poorest design is one which 
shows the maximum of disorder. 

The most direct means of gaining order is to increase the num- 
ber of agreements among objects. If objects are all of the same 
size, form, color, much has been gained in comparison with a field 
in which the objects are of miscellaneous sizes, forms and colors. 
However after the designer has secured objects all alike an additional 
and important degree of beauty can be gained by their orderly 
arrangement. They may be placed with their main lines standing 
in the same direction; they may all be placed in the same plane; 
they may be arranged in straight rows or circles, or in some other 
easily understood figure — that is in some understandable order. 

Illustration 

The accompanying diagram may be allowed to represent a 
public square planted in four different ways. In diagram A the 
trees are of various species, some deciduous, some evergreens, and 

13 



TEXT BOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



o 


^-^o 


o o 


U~ 


A 


o^ 


o 






o 


O r,^ 



ooooo 
o o 

O Q 

o o 
o 



o o 
ooooo 



A 




OoOqP 


o 


u 


Q 


o 


o 


o 


o 


^o 


oOo^ 




c i> 

Fig. 7. Various Arrangements of Trees on a Lot 
14 



DESIGN 

are scattered aimlessly about over the area. There are very few 
agreements and no design. 

In diagram B the trees are all of the same kind and size and are 
arranged in straight rows, which rows are parallel with the bound- 
aries of the rectangle. If the student will imagine these four rows 
of trees, still kept as rows, but placed at various angles with the 
boundaries, he will see that the difference is very great in favor of 
the arrangement as shown. In other words the design here illus- 
trated has a larger number of geometrical agreements. 

In diagram C an equally definite arrangement has been secured, 
introducing curved lines. This presents a certain amount of variety, 
which is in general agreeable. 

In diagram D a totally different type of design has been adopted, 
and one which is very effective in dealing with certain problems. 

Observation 

It will be noticed that the three designs offered viz. B, C, and 
D, are all formal in character. This must not be understood as an 
argument in favor of formal design. It is altogether possible to 
develop a logical design of informal character, and such design is 
especially important in landscape architecture. At the same time 
informal design is much more difficult than formal design; and 
since the purpose of this present lesson is merely to introduce the 
idea of design as clearly and simply as possible it is best to adhere 
to these simple, formal examples. 

Problem 

The student should plan several other arrangements of trees 
on the same area here shown. 

As a second step in the problem it will be worth while to use 
two kinds of trees one represented by circles and one by triangles. 
In order to visualize the results one may consider the circles to 
represent maples and the triangles to represent spruces. 

15 



TEXT BOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Next the pupil should undertake to make similar arrangements 
on areas of other sizes and dimensions, some of them irregular in 
form 

Additional Study 

The subject of design is of such fundamental importance that 
the pupil should follow it as far as his time and facilities will allow. 
There are many good books on design some of which are listed in the 
bibliography, page 339, and the student should give them extended 
and careful study. 



16 




LESSON 4 

Brick Walk 

HE purpose of this lesson is to give the pupil fur- 
ther experience in the simplest problems of design. 
The problem here presented is the design of a 
brick walk (or brick and cement) laid in pattern. 

General Considerations 

The pattern-work in brick, or brick and 
cement or brick and tile, is intended to make the walk more in- 
teresting and attractive than a walk of plain brick or dull cement. 
But it must be clearly understood that this enhancing of interest 
must be kept within bounds. It may be overdone. Brick work 
of several different colors, or of bright conspicuous colors, may be 
so gaudy as to attract attention unduly to itself. It is a matter of 
good taste to draw the distinction between a design which would 
make a walk agreeably interesting and one which would be disa- 
greeably conspicuous. In matters of taste like this no rules can 
ever be given. 

In general the simpler patterns are to be preferred, and the 
quietest colorings. If the house is somewhat florid inco lored brick, 
stucco or bright paint, and if there are competing interests, such 
as fancy gates, brilliant beds of flowers, fountains and other "orna- 
mental" features, then a more fanciful and colorful design may be 
adopted for the walk. 

Examples 

In Figure 8 four designs are sketched. In two of these brick 
alone are used; presumably all of one kind. In the other two brick 
are combined with cement areas in making up the pattern; and 
bricks of two different shades may be chosen. 

17 



TEXT BOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




[zzi en 

DnDnD 

CD CD 




CD 



CU 



ru 



ft 






pun 



at 




31~I1C=1 







1=] d] 



I I I I l | II I II I I III I I I I I I l| I I II I I M I II I I I I I l| tl I II I I 



Fig. 8. Designs for Walks of Brick and Cement 

18 



BRICKW ALK 



Equipment 

For this exercise the pupil will need the usual drawing equipment, 
such as drawing board, T-square, triangles, scale, with paper 
and pencils. He ought to have also colored crayons or water 
colors. 




Brick Walk with Flower Border 



Problems 

The student should first redraw one or more of these designs on 
a larger scale, not less than 1" = V. These drawings may be 
made in pencil and colored with crayons. 

The student should then make two to four original designs, 
keeping to the simplest combinations. These designs may be at 
the same scale. The first ones should be in pencil and colored with 

19 



TEXT BOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

crayons; the later ones should be finished in ink and tinted with 
water colors. 

When this exercise is undertaken by a class it will be very de- 
sirable to place all the designs on exhibition together for comparison 
and criticism. 



20 




LESSON 5 

Scaling Plans 

HIS lesson is intended to familiarize the pupil with 
the use of scales in making and reading maps and 
plans. 

Definition 

The relation of a distance on a plan to the 
distance which it represents on the object is 
called the scale of the plan. Scales are based on the distance in 
feet on the object which is represented by one inch on the plan or 
on the number of inches on the plan which represents one foot on 
the object. In small scale plans an inch represents a considerable 
distance, often 50, 80, 100 or even several hundred feet. In medium 
scale plans an inch may represent 10, 20, 30 or 40 feet. In very 
large scale plans an inch may represent 8 or 4 or 2 or 1 feet or 
sometimes only a fraction of a foot. Odd scales, such as those in 
which one inch represents 16 or 16] or 32 feet etc. are remnants 
of the old Gunter's or surveyors measure and are now little used, the 
decimal system being much more convenient. 

Applications 

Practically all engineers' and landscape gardeners' surveys and 
plans are made on a scale of one inch representing some multiple 
of ten feet. The surveys and general plans of large areas are on 
relatively small scales, the detail plans being usually on a scale of 
1" = 20' or 1" = 40'. Occasionally plans are made to a scale of 
1" = 10' or 1" = 30', but these scales are not so much used. 

Architects' plans represent smaller areas and must show more 
detail than do engineers' plans. They are therefore usually on 

21 



TEXT BOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

much larger scales, from 1" = 8' to 1" = 1', or the details may be 
drawn 1, 2, 3 or 4 inches on the plan representing one foot on the 
object, or the plan may even be full size. 

A detailed statement of the scale should always be given on a 
plan. It is usually stated thus — 1" = 20' or "Scale one inch 
equals twenty feet." 

"Graphic scales" are often used. When this is done a straight 
line is ruled, usually near the title, and divided into lengths equal to 
one, five, ten, etc. feet at the scale at which the plan is drawn, ex- 
actly as the scale of miles is shown on a geographical map. A 
graphic scale is nearly always to be preferred to a numerical scale, 
for the following reasons: First the graphic scale makes it possible 
to take off distances on the edge of a card or paper and measure 
them on the plan when no other scale is at hand. Second, if the 
plan shrinks with age, or if it is photographed down to a smaller 
size for use as an illustration in a book, or for other uses, the graphic 
scale always holds good, while a statement that one inch represents 
a definite number of feet would then be incorrect. 

Methods of Working 

In drawing plans to standard scales, or in reading distances on 
plans so drawn, the worker should always use a scale made of paper, 
wood, celluloid or metal. These scales are made in several different 
patterns and are graduated in the various systems and scales re- 
quired. The simplest and most useful scale for the student of 
landscape gardening is the triangular engineer's scale, one foot 
long, shown in Figure 10. These scales are usually divided to read 
10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 parts (or feet) per inch. 



The student will inevitably find many plans which do not corre- 
spond to any standard scales. Most of the drawings in this book, 

22 



SCALING PLANS 



though originally made to standard scales, are now "out of scale" 
because they have been reduced in size in the process of engraving. 
Any photographic reproduction of a map or plan is likely to change 
the scale in this manner; and drawings, especially blueprints, often 
shrink appreciably so as to make the use of the standard scale im- 
practicable. 

Whenever such a drawing contains a proper graphic scale it 
will be easy to read any measurements. If necessary a longer scale 
can be constructed on a piece of drawing paper by copying and 
extending the graphic scale. If no graphic scale is given one can 
still be made providing the true length of any line in the drawing is 
known or can be ascertained. This known length can then be sub- 
divided and a graphic scale constructed. 

It is important that all these considerations be fully understood 
by the pupil for they will be found essential in handling the exercises 
assigned in this book. 

Practice 

The pupil at this point should have considerable practice in 
reading distances on plans and maps of all sorts. Besides the nu- 
merous examples found in this book he should examine maps in 
geographies, plans of architects, building and bridge plans in books 
of all sorts, and should make sure that he can determine quickly and 
accurately any measurements shown on any legible plan or map 



23 




LESSON 6 

Enlarging and Reducing Plans 

HE purpose of this lesson is to teach the pupil how 
to enlarge or reduce plans or maps, that is how 
to redraw them at a larger or a smaller scale. 
There are several methods of doing the work, 
any one of which may be used for either enlarg- 
ing or reducing. Some of the methods are sim- 
ilar to those used in making surveys, for sur- 
veying is simply reducing a plan from full size to some smaller scale. 

Cross-Section Method 

The plan to be enlarged or reduced is ruled ofT with two sets of 
parallel lines at right angles to each other equally spaced, usually 
at some multiple of five or ten feet apart at the scale of the plan. 
The lines in one direction are numbered and those in the other di- 
rection lettered. The sheet on which the enlargement or reduction 
is to be made is then ruled off in the same way, the lines being spaced 
relatively the same distance apart, that is the same number of feet 
apart at the new scale and numbered and lettered as on the original 
plan. The lines and objects of the plan are then drawn in each 
square in their relative positions, the distances being scaled or es- 
timated depending on the accuracy required. This method is 
similar to a cross-section survey. 

The Radial Method 

A transparent paper or cloth is firmly tacked down over the 
plan so that they will not move on one another. A point, usually 
somewhat central in location, is then taken from which the distance 
is measured, at the scale of the original, along a straight line to any 

24 



ENLARGING AND REDUCING PLANS 

object on the plan beneath. The position of the object is then lo- 
cated on the tracing paper or cloth along the same line and at rela- 
tively the same distance from the central point at the new scale. 
Instead of changing the scale each time it is often easier to multiply 
the original reading by the ratio of enlargement or reduction and 
plot the point without moving the scale. This method is similar to 
the work done at any one station of a stadia-transit survey or a 
plane-table survey. 

Parallel Courses and Proportional Measurements 

In reducing or enlarging a simple rectilinear outline drawing 
as of a building, field or outline survey, a very easy method is to 
tack a transparent paper or cloth over the drawing, then starting 
from some angle draw a line directly over the first side and of the 
required length at the new scale, draw through its end a line parallel 
to the second side and measure off the required proportional length. 
Continue in this way making the corresponding sides of the original 
and the new drawing parallel and proportional. The last course will 
coincide with the last course of the original and its farther end will 
coincide with the starting point. Lines drawn from the starting 
point through any angle of the new plan will pass through the 
corresponding angle of the original. 

A starting point may be taken and all the work done entirely 
to one side or within the original so long as all corresponding sides 
are drawn parallel and proportional. This method of reducing is 
similar to the use of the plane-table or oriented drawing board in 
locating a broken line from successive stations. It is merely a little 
different application of the radial method. 

The Pantograph Method 

The pantograph is a mechanical device consisting of two pairs 
of parallel bars so arranged that a pencil mounted on one bar will 
move in any direction at a definite relation to the motion of a tracer 

25 



TEXT BOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



point mounted on another bar. The ratio of this relation may be 
varied by adjusting the bars, the pencil and the tracer point lO 
various positions. When the tracer is drawn along the lines of a 
plan the pencil will reproduce the plan at a pro- 
portionately larger or smaller scale. When the 
pencil describes the larger motion the new plan 
will be an enlargement but if the pencil and 
tracer are transposed in position so that the 
pencil describes the lesser motion the new plan 
will be a reduction. This method is simply a 
mechanical application of the radial method, the 
fixed end of the pantograph bars corresponding 
to the central point used in that method. 

Proportional Dividers 

This is a mechanical device having two legs 
which cross at a movable pivot and open pro- 
portionally on opposite sides of it; this propor- 
tion may be varied by moving the pivot back or 
forth along the legs of the instrument. When 
adjusted so as to give the desired ratio the pivot 
is clamped in place and measurements taken off 
the original plan with one end of the instrument 
are plotted on the new plan with the other end. 
This is not so much a separate method of enlarge- 
ment or reduction as it is an instrument which 

may be made use of in any other method. This method is one of 

the most practicable of all. 




Fig. 11. Proportional 
Dividers 



Equipment 

For practice in reducing and enlarging the pupil should have 
several maps and plans of various sizes available. He must have 
an engineer's scale, with the necessary' drawing board, T-square, 

26 



ENLARGING AND REDUCING PLANS 

triangle, pencil, etc. If the pantograph method is to be illustrated 
it: will be necessary of course to have a pantograph; and a set of 
proportional dividers will be required in learning method 5 above. 




Fig. 12. Pantograph 



Practice 



The student should redraw several maps and plans, reducing 
some, enlarging others. Plans in this book will serve admirably, 
as many of them will have to be redrawn by the pupil as the course 
proceeds. 

This practice need not be unduly protracted, since there will be 
many occasions for the further use of the methods here described, 
but the pupil should spend enough time in this work so that he 
can use several different methods readily. 



27 




LESSON 7 

Paced Survey 

HE object of this lesson is to explain the usual 
methods of making paced surveys. Such surveys 
are frequently used in landscape gardening. It 
is important that everyone who does any sort 
of work in landscape gardening, even the pupil 
in school or college, should be familiar with the 
practical methods employed and should have 
some experience in making surveys. 

Definition 

A paced survey is one in which all, or most of the distances 
are measured by the worker pacing, or walking, from point to 
point. Sometimes when large areas are to be mapped as in military 
work, distances are measured by counting the steps taken by a 
horse, or by observing the time taken by a horse to traverse them. 

Discussion 

The paced survey has several practical advantages. It can be 
made quickly by one man working alone without expensive instru- 
ments. It is therefore rapid and inexpensive. Without previous 
practice the average man will work to about 10% of accuracy, making 
the distances too short on account of over-stepping. With practice 
it is possible to reduce the error to two or three per cent. 

Although not absolutely accurate as to distances the relation- 
ships of parts are correct, and such surveys are accurate enough for 
plans to accompany general directions and explanations to assist- 
ants and clients, for rearrangement plans where little grading is 
proposed, for approximate location of details for the guidance of 

28 



PACED SURVEY 



experienced foremen, for making planting plans and for records of 
information in study of existing designs. They are not accurate 
enough for figuring amounts in grading. 

Equipment 

The worker should be equipped with a compass (see Lesson 
8). He should also have one or several sheets of cross-section 
paper mounted on a drawing board. It is possible, of course, to 
make paced surveys while recording the notes on any stray sheet of 
paper, but the cross-section paper will help greatly. A pair of tri- 
angles and an engineer's scale should be used. 

General Directions 

Pace Length: Do not try to take an unnaturally long step, it 
is tiresome and cannot be continued with an uniformity. The 
ordinary step is not far from two and one-half feet, often a little 
more, and one is apt to lengthen it in pacing so that care should be 
taken not to overstep. For areas of a few acres the best plan is to 
take the natural step considering it two and one-half feet and keeping 
count in feet rather than number of steps. Starting with, say, the 
right foot, counting five, ten, fifteen feet, etc., each time it is placed; 
distances may then be plotted in feet with the engineer's scale. 

When considerable areas are to be surveyed so that long dis- 
tances are paced and the accumulated error would amount to con- 
siderable, more correct results will be obtained by finding the true 
length of the pace by counting the number taken in a measured 
distance of considerable length. This is the method used in military 
surveying. A table of corrections for various slopes may be worked 
out and applied in order to give correct horizontal distances. 

Two methods are in common use: 

1. In which objects are located from base lines by two paced 
distances usually at right angles to each other. 

2, In which objects are located from some central point, the 

29 



TEXT BOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

direction being read by a compass and the distance paced. The 
first method is more useful for areas of a few acres, especially if 
about a building. 

Method I 

In this method the plan should be plotted on a piece of paper 
ruled to squares; engineers cross-section paper is best. It is ruled 
ten spaces to the inch and each space may be taken as a foot, or as 
two feet, making the scale of the plan 10' or 20' to the inch, or more 
if desired. The sides of the main building give good straight lines, 
and their extensions may easily be located as they cross the grounds. 
Usually a building will give two such lines in each direction and 
sometimes more. When there is no building, a straight fence may 
be used as a base line, or three poles may be set up in line. Three 
will define the line at any point while if two are used positions on 
the line cannot be determined between them. A straight line on 
the ground, as a railroad-edge or ditch will do, but this is not so 
good as something which stands up so as to be easily seen. 

One of the heavy lines on the cross-section paper should be 
assumed as representing the base line on the ground, or two at right 
angles should be taken to represent the best defined sides of a build- 
ing. It will not be possible to locate the details of the building ex- 
actly by pacing and if special accuracy is desired for these measure- 
ments it will be better to tape them. This may be done by fastening 
the zero of the tape at one corner of the building and recording the 
readings at each side of windows, doors, etc., to the next corner, and 
similarly along the other sides. With this information the building 
may be easily plotted. 

Pacing is not sufficiently accurate to give good results by triangu- 
lar ties, even small errors in measurement will throw the intersec- 
tion of the arcs too far from the correct position. The pacing 
should be on 90° ties, that is along lines at right angles to the base 
lines. A point should be found in the base line where a line at 90° to 
it will pass through the object to be located. When the distance to 

30 



PACED SURVEY 



the object is short such a point may be found by estimation, for 
greater distances stand on the base line, stretch the arms along it, and 
(without looking at the object) swing the arms together, if they do 
not point toward the object move along the base line and try again 
till the proper place is found. When a drawing board is used to 
hold the paper, right angles may be found by sighting along its edges 
or a right angle mirror or prism may be used. 

Pacing should be done from the point on line to the object, as 
the point must be found first and the object is more easily seen from 
a distance. 

Do not locate an object by pacing from one base line along 
another to the right angle point, as this would include any error 
made in the location of the right angle point. Such an error of lo- 
cation would have little effect on a distance at right angles to the 
base line. 

Sometimes objects intervene so that it is not possible to pace 
along a desired line; it is then often possible with a little care to 
offset and pace along a parallel line. 

Gain general control of the problem first, — that is, locate 
boundaries, fences, important roads and the larger objects as other 
buildings, etc., and then fill in the single trees, walks, shrub beds and 
other details. 

Locate everything possible from the original base lines. When 
objects are to be located from other objects be sure that the first 
locations are correct. 

When locating a line at an angle to the base line tie in its ends, 
or if more convenient some point in the prolongation of the line. 
A row of trees may be plotted by locating the end ones and pacing 
along the line to locate intervening ones. 

Locate curves by right angle ties from the base lines to as 
many points as desired. Avoid unnecessary walking. Often in 
pacing a distance intermediate objects, as road edges, etc. will be 
passed; if so, make notes of the distances to such objects and later 
plot them. 

31 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Check your work occasionally by general inspection of the plan 
and correct any mistakes. 

In plotting it will be less confusing to orient the plan so that 
objects will be in their proper relations. 




S/i/eiuaJ^- Afa//r Sfntvf- 



FiQ. 13. Plan Drawn from Paced Survey 

Omit foliage lines till all location is done and then sketch them 
by inspection in relation to various objects. 

An approximate north point should be shown. It may be 
determined approximately by holding a watch flat in the hand with 
its hour hand directed toward the sun (that is with its shadow under 
it); then half way between the hour hand and twelve will be the 
north and south line. 



32 



PACED SURVEY 



Method II 

In the second method, where a compass is used, select some 
central important object such as a tree or building corner, and stand- 
ing at it, take the bearings of a considerable number of other ob- 
jects. Then pace from the central station out to an object and 
crossing over to some other object pace back to the central station 
so as to save walking. Intermediate objects along a paced line 
should be noted. The notes of such a survey may be recorded 
either in tabular form in a notebook with columns showing the 
station, direction, distance and object, or in a diagrammatic form 
with the objects roughly sketched in relation and the direction and 
distance shown along lines from the central station. Additional 
stations may be located from the first one and the work carried along 
as required. Such a survey must be plotted up by means of a 
protractor. It is much better to use a compass and a protractor 
graduated in azimuth to 360° rather than to quadrants. This 
method requires less time in the field and more in the office than 
does the previous one. It also requires the use of compass and 
protractor. The results are perhaps not quite so accurate, as it is 
not possible to read courses very accurately with a hand compass. 

Practice 

The student must have actual practice in making paced sur- 
veys. Indeed he must have extended and frequent practice. Speed 
and accuracy are gained by such practice, the improvement in 
accuracy being especially important. 

Therefore let the student undertake surveys of this kind as 
often as possible. It will be better naturally to begin with simple 
problems where only a few details are to be located and proceed to 
the study of larger areas and rougher land with more intricate de- 
tails. It will be better also to select areas which have some in- 
trinsic interest or those for which the finished maps may be of some 
further use, either in the present course of landscape gardening 
studies or for other business. 

33 




LESSON 8 

Use of Compass 

N the simplest paced surveys no compass is used, 
the cardinal directions being known with suffi- 
cient exactness. However, as paced or taped 
surveys become more elaborate the point is soon 
reached where directions have to be determined 
more carefully and horizontal angles read. The 
use of a hand compass is then the next step. 

The present lesson takes up the construction and use of the compass 

in its simpler forms. 

Compass Construction 

The essential part of a compass is a magnetized needle balanced 
on a vertical pivot. This needle when given its freedom will swing 
horizontally till one end points toward the magnetic but not the 
true north. 

The ends of the needle are marked in some way to distinguish 
them; sometimes one end, — usually the north, — is colored blue, 
sometimes a short transverse bar is placed in the north end, some- 
times the south end has a small coil of wire wound around it to 
balance the dip of the needle. Usually the needle is deeper than 
wide so as to balance better. 

The needle swings within or over a circular dial which is divided 
into 360 degrees. The unit of graduation is usually one degree, 
sometimes one-half degree or on small instruments two or five de- 
grees. 

The needle oscillates a good deal and comes to rest slowly. 
In order to check its motion and bring it to rest more quickly a 
small clamp is usually provided by which the needle may be raised 

34 



USE OF COMPASS 



from its pivot and clamped against the cover glass. This clamp is 
usually so arranged as to be brought into action as the case is closed 
and so lift the needle from its pivot when the instrument is not in 
use, thus saving the pivot from unnecessary wear and l^eeping the 
needle in better condition. 

Hand compasses are made in a variety of forms and sizes. 
The larger ones with longer needles are more carefully made and 
much better. There are two general kinds: 

1. The Plain, Box or Pocket Compass in which the needle moves 
within or above a fixed dial all parts of which are open to view. 
Such instruments are often of watch form and not necessarily 
shaped like a box. They often have folding sight vanes on the 
N.-S. line; that at the south end with a narrow vertical slit; that 
at the north end with a vertical hair, thread or wire. 




Fig. 14. Types of Compasses — Box Compas.s; Prismatic Compass; Bbunton s 
Pocket Transit 



2. The Prismatic Compass in which the dial is attached to and 
floats with the needle and often only a small part of it is exposed to 
view. There are usually sight vanes, and on the south one there 
is a prism so placed as to refract the dial to the eye and make it 
possible to sight the direction and read the dial at the same time. 
In another form a mirror in the cover serves the purpose of the 
prism. 

35 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

There are several methods of numbering the graduations of 
the dial. The two methods most often used are: 

1. Quadrant Graduation with a zero at both the north and 
south, the numbering increasing in each direction up to 90 degrees 
at both east and west. Quadrant courses are recorded by their 
relation to the N.-S. hne as N. 10° E. or S. 77° W. etc. 

This is the usual form of graduation of the box compass and is 
the one most often used by land surveyors. It is liable to give rise 
to confusion and error as there are four different courses for every 
degree number as N. 10° E., N. 10° W., S. 10° E., S. 10° W., two of 
the courses being the reverse directions of the other two. 

2. Azimuth Graduations: In this form there is but one zero 
which is at the north, the degrees being numbered continuously to 
the right (clockwise) through E., S. and W. to 360° which coin- 
cides with zero at the north. 

There is thus but one course for any degree number and there- 
fore less chance for confusion in reading or recording. This is the 
usual graduation of the prismatic compass. 

Important Note: The actual numbering on a floating dial 
usually starts with zero at the south and runs clockwise but as the 
reading is always made at the rear end of the sighted line in the 
prismatic compass this arrangement of the numbering gives correct 
readings based on zero at the north. 

It should be carefully noted that with the floating dial we read 
the direction on the line of the course while with a fixed dial we read 
the direction not on the line of the course but at the N. end of the 
needle. 

The course is the line through the sight vanes, or if there are 
no vanes it is along the N.-S. line of the dial which line is brought 
to bear on the object whose direction is sought. 

When the dial floats it brings the reading to the sighted line. 
When the dial is fixed the instrument revolves about the needle which 
maintains a constant N.-S. position and the course is shown by the 
angular distance between it and the N.-S. line of the dial as read 

36 



USE OF COMPASS 



at the end of the needle. As the course moves to the east the needle 
appears to have moved to the west, and vice versa; for this reason 
E. and W. are often reversed in position so as to make correct 
reading easier. 

Methods of Use 

In use the compass 
should be held in an 
approximately horizontal 
position and as steadily 
as possible. It is easier 
to do this if the arms from 
shoulder to elbow are 
pressed against the body 
and any rotation of the 
compass done by twisting 
the body rather than by a 
motion of the wrists. 

Some compasses have 
two small level vials at- 
tached at right angles so 
as to show when the in- 
strument is level ; in others 
the observer must judge 
by the position or motion 
of the needle or of the 
sight vanes whether or 
not the instrument is near- 
ly level. 

The compass needle 
is easily affected by iron or steel, and care should be taken not to 
use it near any such metal. Even for approximate hand work it 
should not be used within 8 or 10 feet of a wire fence or telephone 
line or 20 or 25 feet of a railroad, while for careful instrument work 

37 




Fig. 15. Using the Pocket Transit 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

it should be at least 75 feet from a railroad. A large pocket knife 
will affect the needle if within a foot or so of it. 

When possible the instrument may be rested on the top of a 
post or stick or even on the ground. 

If the instrument has sight vanes the N.-S. line should be 
brought to bear on the object whose direction is desired by holding 
the instrument nearly up to the level of the eye and sighting through 
the vanes. When the needle has come to rest it should be care- 
fully clamped and the direction read. The average of two or three 
readings will be more accurate than a single one. 

If there are no sight vanes the instrument must be held at a 
lower position and the N.-S. line directed by estimation toward the 
object sought. When the needle has come to rest its direction may 
be read or the average of the swing may be taken before it comes to 
rest. It may be helpful in directing the N.-S. Une to hold the in- 
strument so that the thumbs meet at S. and the first fingers at N. 
or to lay a pencil across over the N.-S. line. 

The prismatic compass should be held close to the eye and the 
hands pressed against the face to steady it. Occasional pressure on 
the stop will bring the needle to rest more quickly or the average 
swing may be taken rather than to wait for the needle to come to 
complete rest. 

In using the prismatic compass the reading is taken at a fixed 
point on the compass box on the line of sight near the eye. 

In using the box or pocket compass keep the S. point of the dial 
toward you and always read the N. end of the needle, recording 
first S. or N. (whichever is nearest the N. end of the needle) then 
the degrees indicated, then if E. and W. are printed in reversed 
positions record whichever is nearest the N. end of the needle. If 
however they are printed in correct positions record the opposite. 

When the dial of a box compass is graduated in azimuth clock- 
wise from N. read the N. end of the needle and plot counter-clock- 
wise. 



38 



USE OF COMPASS 



Records 

A record of compass bearings should show the following data, 
clearly arranged in compact columns: 



Starting point 


Course 


Distance 


Object at end 
of course 


N. E. Cor. Wilder 


N. 10° 
166° 


80 
100 


12" maple Tree 
N. W. cor. French 



The starting point where the observations are made may be 
the same for several records. 

The course should show first the primary cardinal point N. or 
S. then the degree, then the secondary cardinal point, E. or W. or 
simply the degree if the reading is made in azimuth. 

The distance in some unit, feet or paces etc., when possible. 
When an object is located by two courses from two known points 
the distance is not necessary. 

Object at end of course — as definite a description as necessary. 

If another person is to plot the notes a statement should be 
recorded as to what form of an instrument was used and how it was 
graduated. 

Practice 

It is essential that the student have considerable practice in 
handling the compass. In this work practice will give a large in- 
crease in accuracy. 

If the student can have the use of several compasses of different 
types it will be desirable to try them all. There are important dif- 
ferences among the compasses in regular use, and each worker usually 
develops a strong preference for some particular type of instrument. 
Each type of compass, however, has its uses and advantages, and 
the good workman will know them all. 

39 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

For practice purposes it will be found efTective to have a number 
of lines laid out, their true compass bearings being known to the 
teacher but not to the pupils. The pupils should then read these 
bearings repeatedly and with all the different makes of compasses 
available. After thirty or forty readings, which should be recorded, 
the pupil will see how accurate is his work. He should observe 
his average error and his limit of error. After one day of attentive 
practice the student, using any fairly good instrument, should re- 
duce his average error to 2° and his extreme error to 5°. 



40 




LESSON 9 

Compass Survey 

HE compass survey may be regarded as an im- 
provement upon the simple paced survey, though 
the compass is frequently used in making paced 
surveys. In short there are all degrees of ac- 
curacy to be attained in surveying depending on 
the kind of instruments used, the time and at- 
tention given to the work and the skill of the 
surveyor. The student should now endeavor to improve his own 
work and to gain greater accuracy through the use of the hand 
compass for determining directions and for measuring horizontal 
angles. 

Measuring Distances 

In previous exercises we have assumed that distances would 
be measured by pacing. Much greater accuracy can be attained 
by measuring with a surveyor's chain or an engineer's steel tape. 
The latter is the best measuring instrument for all practical purposes. 
Some experience in handling the engineer's tape will be found profit- 
able. 

"Chain tapes" are thin and fairly broad steel ribbons graduated 
in feet and hundredths throughout. 

Heavy or "Hoop Skirt" tapes are of thicker and usually nar- 
rower steel ribbon graduated to feet, and usually the end feet are 
graduated to tenths. 

Be sure you know where the zero point and the total length 
point are on the tape. If you don't know find out by comparing the 
ends with some other part of the tape. Some tapes have the zero 

41 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



at the inside of the ring, some at the end of the ribbon and some at a 
distance from the end. 

In field work it is better to have the zero end at rear so as to 
measure from it each time. In holding the zero end don't allow 




Fk;. Hi. Using the Prismatic Compass 

strain to come on the stake or pin. Tie a strong string or leather 
thong into the ring when more convenient. In making measure- 
ments always hold tape level. Hold tape in left hand drawing 
around little finger. Pull tight, as though you meant business; 
the shortest measure is the correct one. 

Show in your notes the direction in which the measurement 
was made, as from A to B. Record all the measurements taken 

42 



COMPASS SUR VEY 



and sum them up to show the total distance between the points 
thus: — 

Distance from A to B 36 . 22 
44.51 
77.08 
24.40 



80 . 73 wire fence 



182.21 



Complete notes for the survey will then take the following 
form: 

Survey of Farm Yard 
May 4, 1922 — T. C. Jones 



Station 


Course 


Distance feet 


Description 


S. E. Cor. Barn 


N. 10° E. 


80 


12" maple 




S. 14° W. 


100 


N. E. Cor. Shed 



Method of Graphic Record 

Another method of recording notes for simple surveys, and a 
very excellent one within limits, is to make a graphic sketch of the 
area under survey, and then to measure distances and angles and 
determine compass bearings on main lines. For example the ac- 
companying sketch, Figure 17, is made by inspection on the ground. 
After the sketch is made the distances are measured and entered as 
shown. Compass bearings are also read and entered. This sketch 
is then taken to the drafting room and correctly plotted to the 
desired scale. 

43 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



4 



y I 







1^ 



^'^^^ 



€j**^ 



Fig. 17. Survey as Sketched in the Field 

Prohlems 

The student should now make several surveys and finish the 
maps from his notes. He should practice various methods of sur- 
veying and of keeping records. Definite problems should be under- 
taken, such as the following: 

1. Make a compass and pace survey of the nearest school 

grounds, preparing a finished map in ink. 

2. Make a compass and tape-line survey of the nearest railroad 

station grounds and prepare map. 

3. Make paced survey without compass of some neighboring 

house and lot. The pupil's own home grounds will offer 
a desirable problem. 



44 




LESSON 10 

Leveling 

HE student should now learn the simpler methods 
of leveling, and the present exercise is intro- 
duced for this purpose. 

Definitions 

A level line is a line parallel to the surface of 
a smooth body of water, i.e., parallel to the gen- 
eral surface of the earth. It is therefore a curved line. 

A horizontal line is a line parallel to the plane of the horizon; 
or it is a straight line tangent to a level line at any point, that is at 
right angles to a vertical line. 

A level is an instrument, with or without a telescope, fixing a 
line of sight (line of collimation) by means of which differences of 
elevation may be determined. It will be understood that the line 
run by a level is not level but horizontal. 

Equipment 

For the business now in hand it is not at all necessary to use 
any elaborate engineering instruments. The farm or drainage level 
is a very simple instrument, consisting of a cheap telescope (some- 
times a tube with glass windows and no lenses) mounted on a light 
tripod or set up on a jacob-staff. (See Figure 18.) 

A hand level is a tube, with or without lenses, in which 
is mounted a horizontal hair, thus fixing a line of sight. The in- 
strument is held in the hand while making observations. 

For all operations which give any reasonable degree of exact- 
ness it is necessary to have also a leveling-rod, which is essentially 
a straight wooden rod usually marked conspicuously in feet, tenths 

45 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

and hundredths. It is usually desirable further to have a meas- 
uring tape or chain. 




Fig. 18. Using the Farm Level 



Operation 

The operation of leveling consists primarily in determining 
the difference in elevation between two given points. The instru- 
ment is set up at some third point from which the two points A and 
X to be compared are visible. When the level tube has been brought 
to a horizontal position, the leveling-rod is placed with its zero mark 
upon the first point. A, the elevation of which is known, and a read- 
ing is made. This is called a back sight, and the resulting figures 
tell the height of the telescope tube (line of collimation) above the 
point A. If this point A is one whose elevation has been deter- 

46 



LE VELING 



mined with some care with a view to its general use in this survey, 
it is called a bench-mark. 

The instrument is now directed toward the second point, X, 
care being taken to make sure that the instrument tube remains 
in exactly the same horizontal 
plane. The leveling-rod is now 
set up with its zero mark on 
the point X and the rod is read 
again. This reading shows the 
height of the telescope tube 
above X; but the desired in- 
formation is secured by sub- 
tracting the second reading from 
the first, the difference thus 
obtained being the difference of 
elevation between A and X. 

Methods of Leveling 

Differential leveling con- 
sists in finding the difference 
of elevation between two or 
more points in the manner 
already explained. 

Profile leveling consists in 
taking the elevations of a series 
of points along a given line. 
As a matter of convenience 
only these readings are made 

at regular intervals, as 10, 50 or 100 feet. The information thus 
secured is best exhibited when plotted out as a profile. One may 
thus construct a profile which shows the fall of a stream or the 
grades, up and down, of a road. See Figure 20. 

Cross-section leveling consists in running several profile levels 

47 




Fig. 19. Using the Hand Level 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

at regular intervals and in two directions, one series at right angles 
to the other. In practice the lines are leveled out in one direction 
only. When plotted they are shown by a map cut into squares 
with elevations shown in figures at each intersection, as in Figure 
21. 

Contour leveling consists in surveying contours upon the land 
and mapping them on paper. (For definition of contour see page 
51.) This is a useful method but somewhat more complicated. 
For lack of space it will not be explained here; but the teacher is 
urged to give the pupil instruction in contour leveling if time and 
equipment will permit, and especially if plane-table practice can 
be introduced. 

Problems 

The student should first become acquainted with the instru- 
ments to be used. To this end he should take up several simple 
problems in differential leveling. He should work in this way until 
he is sure that he can determine the difference of level between two 
points with reasonable speed and accuracy. 

Profile leveling should then be practiced. Take a section of 
road, or path, not less than one-quarter nor more than one-half 
mile in length. Adopt some point as a bench-mark, preferably one 
the elevation of which is already known. Set up the level and 
proceed as in profile leveling. Measure from the point of beginning 
50 feet along the center of the road and determine the elevation 
of this second point B. Measure another 50 feet and find the ele- 
vation of C. Whenever a point is reached where the leveling-rod 
cannot be seen from the station where the instrument is standing, 
or when the elevation is so high or so low that it cannot be read on 
the leveling-rod, it will be necessary to take up a new station with 
the instrument. The last point for which the elevation has been 
determined is then adopted as a turning-point. When the in- 
strument has been reset the first operation will be to level back upon 
this turning-point, and, using this turning-point as a new bench- 

48 



LE VELING 



mark, compute the elevation of further points with reference to this 
known elevation. 

The information gained in this survey should be instantly 
recorded in a note-book. From this record a profile should be 
plotted upon suitable paper upon a drawing board. 



SO 



DISTATSC-E IN FEET 
dOO 1-50 200 ±50 300 350 'JOO 4^"0 SOO 55o 60 




Fig. 20. Profile op a Road Secured by Leveling 

The student should next undertake one or two simple problems 
in cross-section surveying. A tract of land of three to ten acres, 
not too rough and not too level and not too much obstructed with 
trees or buildings, should be chosen. Along one side a base line 
should be laid off, pegs being set at intervals of 50 feet. The profile 
of this line should then be determined with care. Lines perpen- 
dicular to this base should next be laid off from the points marked 
by pegs and running across the area under survey. Then a profile 
survey will be made on each of these perpendicular lines, beginning 
at the peg and taking elevation each 50 feet. The observations 
will all be recorded at once in the field book. 

The elevations thus determined should now be shown in figures 
on a map of squares as in Figure 21. 

The interpolation of contours will be taken up in the next 
lesson. 



49 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Readings 

The student may consult any good manual of surveying, such 
as Pence and Ketchum, "Manual of Field and Office Methods for 
the Use of Students in Surveying," New York, 1902. 



50 




LESSON 11 

Mapping Contours 

HE purpose of this lesson is to teach the mean- 
ing and use of contour lines on maps. The 
pupil must be able to read contours at a glance, 
and he should be able to draw them correctly 
upon his own maps. 



Definition 

A contour is a line upon a plan or map connecting points of 
equal elevation. The shore line of a body of standing water is a 
true contour. 

Since every part of a contour line is of the same elevation the 
ground on one side of a contour is always higher and on the other 
side always lower than the contour. All the elevations between 
any two contours must be higher than one and lower than the other. 

Contours are not necessarily parallel, as the ground surface is 
very irregular. On steep slopes they are near together, on nearly 
level land they are far apart and often vary greatly in direction. 

A contour can never cross the shore of a body of standing water. 
A contour may cross the shore of running water but it can cross the 
same shore once only and will then appear on the farther shore at 
a point nearly opposite. 

Contour hues are rarely made up of straight portions joined by 
relatively sharp angles : they are usually of a series of tangent curves, 
especially in cleared and cultivated land. At the abrupt edges of 
artificial cuts or fills or of naturally eroded banks they do have rather 
sharp angles. 

Contours cannot cross each other, except in the very unusual 

51 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

condition of an overhanging surface, in which case they always 
cross each other twice. 

A contour never ends, but we frequently show ends — 

1. At the margins of the map — an arbitrary limit beyond 

which no data are shown. 

2. At a building, wall, or other vertical surface — here one or 

more contours continue in the vertical surface but can- 
not well be shown. 

3. At the limits of a ledge, stone pile or other surface so rough 

that it is difficult to locate the contour correctly on it. 

4. At a stream shore, where we have no data to show its lo- 

cation correctly under the water. 

Plotting Level Notes 

Whenever a series of levels has been taken either with the transit, 
the plane-table or any kind of a leveling instrument, they should 
be recorded on the plan in such a way that the decimal point will 
occupy the exact position where the level was taken. 

When the survey has been made by the cross-section method 
the paper on which the plan is to be plotted should be ruled with 
two series of fine sharp lines at right angles to each other, properly 
spaced at the scale of the plan to represent the cross-section lines 
of the survey. These lines should be lettered and numbered as the 
survey lines were lettered and numbered in the field. The levels 
should then be entered diagonally across the intersections of the 
lines, with the decimal point just where the lines cross. 

In working out the positions of the contours on any plan we 

must base our work on the supposition that the surface of the ground 

is practically straight — that is on an even slope — between any 

two adjacent levels. Therefore in taking the levels we must be 

sure to take them not only at the cross-section stakes, but also 

wherever there is a change in the slope of the surface, so that our 

supposition that the surface is on an even slope between the levels 

will be approximately correct. 

52 



MAPPING CONTOURS 



The positions of the contours are determined by proportion 
between any two adjacent levels, thus the 80 contour would pass 
half way between elevations 79.5 and 80.5 or it would pass through 




Fig. 21. Contours Interpolated on Cross-Section Survey 



a point two-fifths of the way from 79.6 to 80.6. There would be 
three (one-foot) contours between 24.5 and 27.8 and five between 
65.2 and 70.7. 

All the contours passing between any two levels should be lo- 
cated at one operation rather than to follow out each contour separ- 
ately. In interpolating on a cross-section survey it is well to fol- 
low along a row of squares rather than to work without any definite 
order. 

Frequently two-foot contours only are interpolated, in which 
case they should always be the even contours as 70, 72, 74, etc. 
On small scale plans sometimes the contour interval is five or ten 
feet as 70, 75, 80, 85 or 70, 80, 90, etc. In any case interpolating is 
done in the same manner. 

53 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Equipment 

For practice in reading contours any contour map may be 
used. The sheets of the United States Geological Survey are es- 
pecially interesting. The pupil should go over such maps until the 
form of the land presents itself to his mind quickly and clearly as 
soon as he sees a set of contour lines, just as ideas come readily from 
reading a printed page. 

For practice in drawing contours the pupil will require the 
usual drawing equipment, viz., drawing board, T-square, triangles, 
scales and pencils. He should also have a book of level notes, 
preferably of his own taking. 

Exercises 

Reading exercises may be given at first, but these should be 
readily understood by the pupil. At any rate the reading of con- 
tours will be more easily grasped after the pupil has had some drill 
in drawing them. 

Accordingly several exercises should be assigned in drawing 
contours on maps of various scales and kinds. 



54 




LESSON 12 

Entrance Road 

HIS presents a lesson in drawing and an excellent 
solution of a typical problem in design frequently 
encountered in landscape gardening. 

Description 

The design here given is copied, with very 
slight changes, from Edourd Andre's "L'Art des 
Jardins," a famous French work of the past generation. It represents 
the main entrance to a private estate of considerable importance. 
The building shown is a "gate lodge," which in its original form 
was intended to house a guard. There were iron gates in the 
gateway and no one could be admitted to the grounds without 
the guard opened the bars. Such pretensions are not popular in 
America today. On a few estates one will still find a cottage 
marking the main entrance. It is usually occupied by a gardener 
or other employee. Even this much is done only on grounds 
owned by wealthy families more or less Europeanized. It would 
be impossible to imagine any American farmer closing the front 
gates on his farm and keeping a hired man to guard the entrance, 
admitting favorite neighbors and keeping out others. 

It seems worth while thus to point out the facts that European 
customs are different from those of America, that social customs 
have a very direct influence on landscape gardening and that there- 
fore American landscape gardening is different from that of Europe. 

In this plan the gate lodge is surrounded by a small court-yard, 
which yard is walled in. There is a wall along the front of the 
estate. Masses of shrubs and deciduous trees mark the entrance and 

55 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



conceal the interior of the estate. Back of the deciduous trees are 
five evergreen trees. 

Observe that the main road is so designed that it cannot be 
confused with the secondary or service road. One sometimes sees 




i\v mv..i!i 



Fig. 22. Entrance to a Private Estate 

signs set up at road junctions reading "This way to the Main Build- 
ing." Such placards are wholly unnecessary here. The main drive 
has its character clearly shown (a) by being the more direct — it 
lies exactly in front of the entering visitor; {b) by being wider than 
the service drive, and (c) by being on the side toward the gate 
lodge, the side to which the visitor's attention must necessarily be 
turned when he enters. 

In short this little plan presents an excellent example of struc- 

56 



ENTRANCE ROAD 



lural design. Every part is placed where it belongs. The skeleton 
structure of the property is strictly what it ought to be — it con- 
forms exactly to the functions to be performed. It therefore re- 
quires no explanations — no sign-board to show the way. 

Problem: The pupil should copy this plan at a scale of 1" = 
20'. 

Supplementary Study 

It will be worth while for the pupil to examine the main en- 
trances to a number of estates, public and private, some small, 
some large. These may include school grounds, college campuses, 
cemeteries, church grounds and any others available. Try to see 
whether the present entrance plans are satisfactory. If satisfactory, 
what are the good points; if unsatisfactory, how could they be im- 
proved. It is especially desirable to have each pupil make a meas- 
ured and scaled plan of some existing entrance area and prepare a 
new plan. It will be well for all members of a class to take the 
same problem in this case. When the plans are complete they 
should be put up together and criticized by the whole class. 



57 




LESSON 13 

Cemetery Entrance 

HIS lesson is intended to present a simple prob- 
lem in design. The design is shown both in 
horizontal plan and perspective. 

Illustrations 

The plan is taken from a recent German 
book on suburban gardening.* The conditions 
represented are typical and such as might be met almost any- 
where. The solution is simple, practical and interesting. 

Discussion 

The land is slightly sloping, being about three feet higher in- 
side the cemetery gate than in the street. The land slopes also 
somewhat to the left, as will be seen in the perspective drawing. 

Entrance is made at the corner of the cemetery ground, a very 
practical arrangement, especially for a foot entrance like this. The 
entrance is dignified by being recessed from the street, and this 
effect of breadth and dignity is further enhanced by the broad 
flight of steps and by the two flanking benches. The two large 
deciduous trees are a main feature of the picture. 

It will be seen that this entrance is not formal, i.e., not sym- 
metrical. It is not on the axis of the entering street. This asym- 
metrical arrangement is a distinguishing feature of the present 
design. For the development of a formal design it would be es- 
sential that the entrance gate should be on the central axis of the 
approaching road and that the whole design should be developed 

* Lange, Land-und Gartensiedelungen, 88. Leipzig, 1910. 
58 



CEMETERY ENTRANCE 



symmetrically upon this axis. However if one will now consider 
the problem of making an attractive photograph of this entrance 
(that is of determining its pictorial value and its best point of view) 




r 




1 

f 



FiQ. 23. Plan of Cemetery Entrance 



he will soon discover that this entire grouping is more efTective 
when viewed from an angle than when photographed straight in 
front. This problem thus brings out one of the radical differences 
between formal and informal design. 



59 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




Fig. 24. Perspective of Cemeteky Entrance 

Problems 

The sludenl should first reproduce these drawings on a larger 
scale. 

After this has been done and the ideas presented are fully under- 
stood, the student should make a study and paced survey of one 
or more entrance problems upon local parks, cemeteries, play- 
grounds, church grounds or other available properties. Upon such 
surveys and studies he should design attractive entrances, using 
trees, fences, gates, steps, seats and other features as may seem 
necessary. 



60 




LESSON 14 

Park Entrance 

HIS lesson offers an opportunity to study a de- 
sign for a city park entrance. The problem is 
similar in general character to the two entrance 
studies already examined; but in this case the 
entrance being to a larger area, used by a much 
larger volume of traffic, the treatment is neces- 
sarily more elaborate. 

Illustration 

The example herewith shown is from a design for the main 
entrance to Lincoln Park, Manitowoc, Wis. The design and draw- 
ing are by Mr. F. A. Gushing Smith, landscape architect, Chicago. 

The approach is by two streets at right angles to each other, 
and this condition makes the problem of designing an artistic en- 
trance especially difficult. Mr. Smith has met this condition by 
developing a monumental feature at the intersection of the two 
streets. Each street thus terminates definitively upon this mon- 
ument. The monument moreover becomes the entrance feature 
of the park, marking the gateway with an object of dignity, beauty 
and interest. The conservatory is so placed as to emphasize fur- 
ther the terminus of the incoming boulevard and to introduce the 
park motive, and to add further interest to the entrance area. 

Other features of the design are sufficiently explained in the 
drawing. 



61 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




r ■'\r ■ -V. 



01^10 'TVBLIC(JA,Rjm5^ar^ 



Approach +EnTB.tkncE 

uTowoc- Wisconsin 

•A.CY5HmG3niTii -TownPLA(i«Rj 

H t C Av G O 



Fig. 25. Entrance to a Park 



Problems 



The sketch plan, Figure 25, should be copied in ink. This is 
an excellent example of landscape drawing and the technic here 
shown may be safely imitated by the student. 

The student should then work out a design of his own for a 
park entrance. The entrance to a school or college campus will 
afford good matter for study. In this case it will be best for all 
students to work upon the same problem. Drawings should be 
submitted on a uniform scale. A scale of 1" = 40' will be con- 
venient in most cases. Drawings should all be in the same medium, 
preferably ink. These drawings should be exhibited together, freely 
discussed and criticized. 



62 




LESSON 15 

Automobile Turn 

HE purpose of this lesson is to illustrate one 
method of designing an automobile turn and to 
give the student practice in drafting. 

Assignment 

Make the cleanest and neatest copy possi- 
ble of the drawing here shown, Figure 26. Do 
not trace the drawing — redraw it at a larger scale. A scale of 
1" = 20' will usually be convenient. 

The new drawing should be made first in pencil, using medium 
hard lead. It should then be inked. This inking may be made 
with ruling pen and compass, or it may be made free-hand with a 
fairly coarse writing pen, as was the original drawing here repro- 
duced. Where drawings are to be used for taking off measure- 
ments in construction they should be accurately drawn with ruling 
pen, but when they are to serve as diagrams merely to illustrate an 
idea, as in this case, they can be done better by the free-hand method 
here recommended. 

Be careful not to get ink under the edge of the triangle in cross- 
hatching; be careful to get the cross-hatching even; get a firm, clean 
outline on the shrubbery masses; make the lines connect without 
break where the change comes from straight line to arc of circle; 
be sure that the stippHng which represents lawn is made with uni- 
form dots; and that requires that the pen does not drag or scratch. 

Discussion 

The arrangement here proposed for an automobile turn is 
easily constructed and is very economical of space. It can be in- 

63 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 






H O U kS E 



?\lllllllM||||||||||f MJ^-^^^™ 



: .:.:• -L 




-Jytt « r ' 




»s 



T T? E EL, T 

Fig. 26. Automobile Turn 



troduced in many places where a full circular turn would be im- 
possible. The circular turn, in fact, in its usual form, is always 
wasteful of space and expensive in construction. Moreover it is 
unsightly and disfiguring to any private grounds. It is admis- 
sible only when introduced in connection with a porte-cochere on a 
large place or as a formal fore-court before large formal buildings. 
A complete turn in front of an ordinary residence is an abomination 
which ought to be avoided at any cost. 

64 



AUTOMOBILE TURN 



It will be seen that the form of turn here suggested can be 
used also in front of a garage. The drive could be carried further 
back and directly into the garage door if desired. 

The pupil will find it interesting to make an examination of 
any good residence street and determine how many home grounds 
could be best served by an automobile turn and parking space 
designed after this model. 



65 



I 




LESSON 16 

Cemetery Lot 

ERE we have presented the problem of the aver- 
age cemetery lot. This problem recurs with 
great frequency, but the solutions commonly 
offered are worked out by everybody except a 
competent landscape gardener. The student is 
now asked to consider what the conditions re- 
quire in the way of clean and orderly treatment. 

Discussion 

The general conditions in this problem are very well under- 
stood, being the same all over North America. Lots are small and 
are surrounded by other lots all suffering from highly individual- 
istic treatment. Each lot owner does his best, though that best 
often indicates lack of both imagination and taste. In a few radical 
cemeteries something has been accomplished by taking the man- 
agement of lots out of individual hands and referring the whole 
landscape treatment, including monuments, to some central com- 
mittee, sometimes placing the matter in the hands of a trained 
superintendent or landscape gardener. 

In general the cemetery lot calls for extreme simplicity, even 
severity, of treatment. Any fanciful "ornamental" features would 
be highly incongruous. The necessity for such restraint, though 
inherent in the individual problem, is much emphasized by the fact 
that each lot is surrounded by others in which the competition for 
display and bad taste easily rises to a height which can never be 
outdone. 

Specifically the requirements of the small cemetery lot may be 

stated as follows: 

66 



CEMETERY LOT 




Typical DEiicn 

CEr\ETER.Y LOTJ 
Chicago 

F. A Cv5HinG SniTh 

LAMDSCAPE AKHITECr 
C H I C AGO 



Lot 5o¥npA,R.-r) 



Fig. 27. Project for Two Cemetery Lots 

The ground should be smooth and level. Mounding, bank- 
ing or terracing is inadmissible, unless very exceptional conditions 
have to be met. 

The ground should be in grass, and the grass should be kept 
mowed. There are, of course, exceptions to this rule also, but they 
are genuine exceptions. 

The monuments, head-stones and foot-stones should be as few 
as possible; and each one should be as small, simple and incon- 
spicuous as it can be made. 

All these furnishings should be kept in repair; they should 
always stand plumb. 

Other furnishings, such as iron fences, iron garden seats, etc., 
should be omitted. 

Deciduous trees, with their quiet shadows upon the mown 
lawns, make the ideal plantings for cemeteries. While it is imprac- 

67 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

ticable for each lot to have one large oak or beech, a few large trees, 
properly placed and grouped, will do more to dignify any section 
of any cemetery than anything else which can be planted. There 
is a custom too common in this country of planting evergreens and 
weeping trees in cemeteries. Neither one has anything to recom- 
mend it. 




Fig. 2S. .\j>propriate Treatment of Cemetery Lot 



Flowering shrubs, such as roses, lilacs and spireas are some- 
times planted on private lots. They may be managed in a way to 
make them agreeable, or at least unobjectionable, but they must be 
introduced with great care. 

Beds of flowers, such as cannas, geraniums or heliotrope, are 
always objectionable. 

68 



CEMETERY LOT 



Clipped hedges of buckthorn, privet or evergreen species may 
rarely be used. 

Illustration 

In the sketch. Figure 27, the treatment for two typical cemetery 
lots is suggested by Mr. F. A. Gushing Smith, landscape architect, 
Chicago, 111. These show free use of deciduous shade trees sup- 
ported by informal plantings of hardy shrubs. These are arranged 
so as to make sketchy jjoundaries for each lot, giving a little touch 
of privacy. The monument on Lot No. 5 is set off with a small 
clipped formal evergreen at each corner with a small border plant- 
ing between, perhaps of ivy, periwinkle or pachysandra. An in- 
teresting note is struck by using flat irregular stepping stones in 
the grass. 

Problem 

The student should now measure some cemetery lot with which 
he is acquainted and should prepare a plan for its permanent im- 
provement. This plan should be made in ink at a scale of I" = 
r. The plans of all members of the class should be compared and 
criticized. 

Questions 

What are the dimensions of the average cemetery lot? Could 
these be larger, and would larger lots be advisable? 

What defects of treatment are most frequent in individual ceme- 
tery lots within your observation? 

What is meant by " perpetual care " in cemetery management? 
How is it effected? and what should it cost? 



69 




LESSON 17 

Street Cross-Sections 

^N order to understand the problems of road im- 
provement it is important to have a detailed 
knowledge of road design. These details are 
more numerous, more intricate and more signifi- 
cant than the average person supposes. The 
present study should introduce the pupil to 
some of these data, especially those which con- 
cern the plan of the public highway and the arrangement of its 
furnishings. 

Materials 

The principal studies should be made upon existing roads and 
streets in the vicinity of the school. A tape line or engineer's chain 
will be needed to make measurements. These findings should be 
supplemented by readings suggested at the end of this lesson. 

Procedure 

Each pupil should make a detailed measurement of cross-sec- 
tions on two or three streets of different types — country roads, 
residence streets, business streets, etc. These measurements should 
run from property line to property line and should locate precisely 
all features, such as sidewalks, trees, curbs, gutters, drains, paving, 
etc. This information should be drawn out in the form shown here- 
with (Figure 29). All sections should be drawn to the same scale 
in order to facilitate comparison. A scale of 1" = 10' will usually 
serve. 

After these drawings have been made for a considerable number 

70 



STREET CROSS-SECTIONS 



of cross-sections, they should be pinned up together on the display 
board for comparison and study. 

U. i. Housins CoftPoRRTion 

i 




Fig. 29. Street Sections. Adopted bp U. S Housing Corporation 
Fio. 30. Connecticut State Roads — Standard Cross-Section 




Fig. 31. Massachusetts State Highways Standard Cross-Section 

Study 

The cross-sections shown in the accompanying figure were those 
adopted as standard by the United States Housing Corporation for 
the extensive town planning operations carried on during the World 

71 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

War. They may be regarded as an expression of the very best 
judgment possible upon the needs of American residence districts. 
Herewith are given also (Figure 31) the details of cross-section 
for Massachusetts state roads. These represent country road re- 
quirements, but the measurements do not run from property line 
to property line, and so do not include certain elements of impor- 
tance even in county highways. 




Fig. 32. Wide Street with Double Row of Trees at Center ^Colorado Springs 



The following general observations may be noted: 

1. The right of way is often needlessly wide in American cities 
and villages and in the country. In the government survey dis- 
tricts of the Middle West and elsewhere the public right of way is 
four rods, sixty-six feet wide, though one-half that space is ample 
for all road purposes. 

72 



STREET CROSS-SECTIONS 



2. The paved or improved portion of the roadbed is often need- 
lessly wide. It should be just wide enough to carry the traffic and 
no wider. 




Fi(i. 33. Broad Street with Central Parking Space — Colorado Springs 

3. The sidewalk is best placed on the outer edge of the street, 
the outer edge of the sidewalk coinciding with the property line. 

4. The sidewalk should be well made and no wider than nec- 
essary. 

5. Trees should be planted between the sidewalk and the 
roadway. 

6. Service wires of all sorts should be kept out of the streets 
as much as possible. At the present time too much leniency is 
shown toward these intrusions, always detrimental to the streets. 

7. The roadway should be well built and capable of carrying 
the traffic. 

73 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

8. The entire highway should be clean and orderly. It should 
not be filled with weeds. However native growth of trees, shrubs 
and wild flowers may be permissible and desirable in country roads 
when properly disposed. 

Query: Where are the best sections of road or street in your 
neighborhood? Consider in detail what merits these sections ex- 
hibit. 

Readings 
Robinson, City Planning, New York, 1916. 



74 



LESSON 18 





SE.c.Tior 



Streets — General Study 

HE pupil should have reached the point now 
where he can quickly take a comprehensive view 
of any street and 
/ be able to judge 
its good points 
and its deficien- 
cies with prompt- 
ness and accuracy. The purpose 
now is to make~such critical studies 
of a number of streets of different 
types. 

Materials 

These studies may be made 
upon streets in the neighborhood; 
but if it is possible for pupils to 
extend these examinations to 
country districts, towns and cities 
at some distance from home the 
information gained will be quite as 
valuable and even more interesting. 
Preceding studies should have made 
the pupils sufTiciently familiar with 
near-by streets. 

For the purposes of this study 
it will be desirable, though not 
necessary, to provide each pupil 
with a number of blank forms as 
forms should be filled out for each 

75 






VU AM 

Maim E.t3iDEMTiAU Village 5tecct 



Fig. 34. 



Plan for Residence Street 
IN A Village 



shown below. One of these 
street examined. 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Form A 

Study of Streets 

A. Equipment 

Road bed: Character (earth, gravel, macadam), good or bad? 

Gutters: How deep? Are they too deep? Are they properly formed? 

— of what material? 
Curb: What material? good or bad? 
Sidewalks: Width, material, location. 
Parkings: (including grass) width, condition. 
Fences: Present or absent; good or bad; are they needed? 
Bridges: Kind; quality. 
Culverts: Kind; quality; are others needed? 
Catchbasins: Present? Are they needed? 
Street Signs: Present? Are they needed? 

B. Public Service 

Poles: Kind; how many? good or bad? Are they indispensable? 

Wires: Kind; how many? Are they dangerous? Are they indispensable? 

Car lines: Number and kind; are they necessary? 

Sewerage: Present? O.K.? 

Gas: Present? O.K.? 

Water: (including hydrants) Present? O.K.? 

Mail boxes: Present? O.K.? 

Fire alarms: Police alarm; present? O.K.? 

C. Ornament 

Trees: Kinds; age; condition. 

Shrubs: Kinds; condition; are shrubs needed? 

D. Nuisances 

Dumps: Whose? 
Bill boards: Why? 
Weeds: What kind? 

Report on Street 

By Date 

76 



STREETS— GENERAL STUDY 

Procedure 

As soon as these studies have been made they should be as- 
sembled, compared and criticized. It will be practicable to have 
the pupils answer such questions as the following: 

1. What is the best type of street paving for this locality? 

2. What are the comparative merits of gravel, macadam, con- 
crete? 

3. What should be the cost of street construction of different 
types? W^hat should be the normal cost of street maintenance? 

4. Where have you found the best parkings? best plantings? 
best curbs? best culverts? best bridges? best street signs? etc. etc. 

The teacher should be able to extend the list of such questions 
considerably so as to cover matters of special interest to his students 
and to his locality. 

It may seem worth while, if time permits, to construct and use 
a score card upon the roads in the neighborhood. The construction 
of such a score card is a problem which may well be assigned to the 
class itself. 

An exhibit of photographs of streets, street plantings, street 
furnishings, etc., may be prepared by the class. Hundreds of post- 
cards, for example, can be gathered showing streets in all parts of 
the world. These can be studied, compared and criticized to the 
full limit of available time. 



77 




LESSON 19 

Street Trees — Varieties 

HE object of this lesson is to familiarize the pupil 
with the different kinds of street trees growing 
in his vicinity. The number of species is prob- 
ably small, and the pupil should be able easily 
to learn all that are of any importance. He 
should learn their appearance in summer and 
winter, their principal characteristics, their spe- 
cific advantages and defects. 

Materials 

Altogether the most valuable studies can be made from the 
trees themselves. Books or bulletins should be used only rarely 
for identification or to verify names. Use scientific names only 
when the vernacular names are untrustworthy. 

Procedure 

Each pupil should be assigned a considerable territory for ex- 
amination — not less than one mile and not more than two miles 
of city or village street on which trees are growing. If some of 
these are old trees and some sections newly planted, so much the 
better. Each pupil should then proceed to make a detailed ex- 
amination of the streets assigned. 

First of all he should make a simple inventory by species. 
This can be noted on a check-list, in this form: 

American elm rHl tHl ml 1141 IHl 1111 

Sugar maple THl lUl IHl mi 1 

Soft (silver) maple mi lUl IHl tHl IHl IHl till 

Horse chestnut mi 1111 

Catalpa mi 11 

Etc. 

78 




Fig. 35. Pin Oaks in Winter 




Fig. 36. Palmettoes on a Stkeet in Savannah 
79 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

When all pupils report their inventories should be summar- 
ized and reduced to percentages. Such a summary will indicate 
the relative popularity of the several species used as street trees; 
and this popularity, with some exceptions, is a fair index of the use- 
fulness of the different species. 




Fig. 37. Live Oak in Savannah 



Questions 

What species are overplanted? and what species might well be 
more generally planted? This inquiry involves a searching criti- 
cism of the foregoing findings, and this discussion should be given 
ample time in class. 

In the field examination, however, the pupil should collect 
other information beyond the mere census of trees. He should 

80 



STREET TREES— VARIETIES 

particularly try to answer the following questions regarding each 
species : 

1. What are its outstanding charactistics? 

2. What are its good points? 

3. What are its defects? 

4. For what conditions is it particularly adapted? 

The note-book should then contain, at the end of this study, 
a series of entries in the following form : 

Street Trees — American elm — Tall, spreading, vase- 
form, branches high, leaving tall clean trunk; varies much 
in form; hardy, withstands wind and drouth; foliage 
good; adapted to city and village streets where plenty of 
room is available. 

Street Trees — Catalpa — Small, and rather irregular, 
low bushy top, hardy, not subject to insect attacks, has 
fine flowers; short lived and poor shade; suitable for 
narrow streets and hard conditions where better trees 
cannot be grown. 

These reports should, of course, be read and criticized in class. 



81 




LESSON 20 
Street Trees — Technical Studies 

N this study the pupil should master the practical 
or technical details which are essential in order 
to enable him to manage street trees and get 
the best results. 

Materials 

The study should be conducted in the field 
upon street trees of the neighborhood. There are many books and 
bulletins dealing with the care of trees, pruning, spraying, so-called 
tree surgery, city forestry, etc. Some of these books are listed 
amongst the reference readings below. They should be studied 
as fully as time permits, but the first and most important step in 
the work is to become acquainted with the trees themselves and 
with the conditions under which they live. 

Study 

Each pupil should be assigned to a certain section planted with 
street trees. This should be the equivalent of not less than two 
city blocks nor more than one half mile. On this space he should 
gather all possible information, such as that suggested below: 

1. What is the character of the street under study — country 
road, village residence section, business street, or what? 

2. To what extent is the street traversed by electric car lines, 
electric service wires, telephone wires, gas mains, water mains, sewers, 
etc.? 

3. What is the character of the soil? 

4. What other conditions have any effect on the growth or 
health of trees? 

82 



STREET TREES— TECHN ICAL STUDIES 

Cultural conditions should then be examined in detail. 

1. How far apart are the trees planted? 

2. Is the alignment exact? If there are deviations from strict 
alignment why have they been made? and what is the result? 

3. Where are the trees placed with reference to sidewalk, curb, 
pavement? Is there ample space for trees to grow? 




Fig. 38. Good Location of Sidewalk and Otheb Details 

4. Have the trees been pruned? How? Is the pruning satis- 
factory? 

5. Have tree guards been used? Are they needed? Are they 
satisfactory? 

6. How many trees have broken tops? Due to ice storms or 
other causes? 

7. How many trees show injury to trunk from gnawing horses 
or similar causes? 

83 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

8. How many trees show burning or similar injury from electric 
wires? 

9. I low many trees show gas poison? (It may be necessary 
to read up on the symptoms of this disease.) 

10. List any other defects. 

It will probably be found that a vary large percentage of street 
trees are defective in one way or another. In fact there are many 
sections where hardly a perfect tree can be found. When the re- 
ports of all members of the class are brought together and summar- 
ized they should show the number of instances of ice damage, horse 
damage, gas, poison, electric line injury, etc. This will indicate 
pretty clearly what causes pull down the average health of trees, 
and thus suggest where efTort should be directed toward improving 
conditions. 

Other matters which may be investigated if there is time are 
drainage, irrigation, fertilization, spraying and laws for the pro- 
tection of trees. 

References 

SoLOTAROFF, Shadc-trees in Towns and Cities, New York, 1911. 
Peets, Practical Tree Repair, New York, 1910. 

MuLFORD, Planting and Care of Street Trees, U. S. Dept. Agr., Far- 
mers' Bui. 1209, Aug. 1921. 



84 




LESSON 21 

Street Trees — Results 

HE object of this exercise is to find and to enjoy 
the best street trees within reach. Every pupil 
must look for the finest trees and must use his 
own taste in deciding which trees are really best. 
This exercise of taste (as we call judgment in 
reference to beauty) is an exceedingly important 
practice for the pupil. It will never do always 
to take some one else's word for what is the best literature, what is 
good music or which are the most beautiful trees. The pupil's own 
taste must be trained by exercise, and must eventually be satisfied 
with results. 

Another characteristic and important feature of this lesson is 
the search for what is best. The pupil is not asked to find the 
worst specimens, nor to make any comparison between best and 
worst. One should always seek to see the best and should pay the 
least possible attention to the worst. This attitude of mind is 
essential to art and is to be recommended in all departments of life. 
(For good scriptural support read Paul in Philippians 4 : 8.) 

Procedure 

Each pupil is directed to examine all street trees within reach 
and to answer in writing the following questions: 

1. Where is the best block of street trees in the town (city or 
other area under study)? 

2. What species are they? 

3. How old are they? 

4. How far apart are they spaced? How large are they? 
Give any interesting facts concerning them. 

85 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



5. Where is the best single specimen in any street in the town? 

6. What species is it? How old is it? Give any other interest- 
ing information. If possible photographs of good street plantings 
and good individual trees should be submitted. 




. . ;S9. The Archinc^ American Elms 

Discussion 

All these reports should come up for full discussion before the 
assembled class. Should any dilTerence of opinion develop as to 
which trees are to be judged best these competitive cases should be 



STREET TREES — RESULT S 



examined with care. It is by no means necessary that a positive 
decision be reached as to which is best; but it is of the utmost value 
that each pupil should put his own preferences to the stringent test 
of argument. 

If a number of photographs can be collected for an exhibit 
these will assist in clarifying everybody's ideas. 



87 




LESSON 22 

Base-Ball Field 

HE problem in this lesson is that of laying off a 
standard base-ball field. 

Discussion 

The landscape gardener is often called upon 

to lay off athletic fields or game courts of various 

kinds. He should have at his command 

full information regarding the standard dimensions, and the fullest 

possible knowledge of general requirements. 

The standard base-ball diamond is made in the form of a square 
exactly 90 feet on a side with a distance of 60 feet 6 inches from 
pitcher's mound to home base. In playgrounds for children it is 
customary to lay off what is known as a boy's diamond 60 feet 
square. 

Besides the diamond itself the regular base-ball field includes 
other features such as the coach line, players'^line and clear space 
for back-field and out-field as shown in the drawing. 

Illustration 

The drawing. Figure 40, shows the layout of the standard 
base-ball field. The dimensions instead of being read from a scale 
are shown in figures on the drawing. This method of expressing 
measurements is frequently used in architectural and mechanical 
drawings, though rarely employed in the maps of engineers and 
landscape gardeners. 



BA S E-B ALL FIELD 



1 -~-^ 


\ 


\ 


1 \ 


1 \ 


1 \ 


N 


1 \ 


1 \ 


\ 


1 /Vo odjtru.ctionj- to be . 

Within fAiJ- /i/?e — * v 


1 \ 


1 \ 




t ^0' * 


\ 


^^ _J_ 






\ 


/f 




\ 


/ 1 
/ 
/ 1 
/ 1 


.y 


" ^^^^''^'^ \ 


/ 1 


ty _ ^ 


^ \ 


' / 1 ^ 


/^-^^ . 




1 /Vii o^jtruc//onr 7 


1 




\ Ivitflin IhiJ Jiiie / 

\ / 


!/ 


\' ^"t"-'""'/ M.SE BALL FIELD 


\ / 


\^ ^ 







Fig. 40. Standard Base-Ball Field 



Assignments 

The pupil should make a drawing of the standard base-ball 
diamond for preservation in his own note-book. This should be 
made in ink at a convenient scale, say 1" = 10'. 

It will then prove a valuable exercise if the student, or group of 
students, can lay out an actual base-ball diamond on a piece of 
suitable land. 

89 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Questions 

1. How many acres of land will be required to lay out a good 
base-ball field? 

2. What orientation is most desirable? 



90 



LESSON 23 

Tennis Court 

HE problem presented in this lesson is the layout 
of the standard tennis court. 

Discussion 

The general requirements of a tennis court 

are commonly understood. They need not be 

taken up here. Neither is it necessary at this time 

to enter into any discussion of the practical construction of a court. 

Every landscape gardener however is frequently required to 

lay out tennis courts. He should have at hand full information 







"TT I jr 



* — w — 



ZTJSA/J^T S 



C O t/R T 



Fig. 41. Standard Plan op Tennis Court 

regarding dimensions and all other requirements, including of course 
the practical requirements of construction. 

The dimensions of the standard tennis court are shown on the 
accompanying drawing, being recorded in figures after the method 

91 



TENNIS COURT 



often employed in architect's drawings. No variation from these 
dimensions should be allowed in any tennis court. 

Assignments 

The student should draw an accurate plan of a standard tennis 
court for preservation in his personal note-book. 

It will then be found worth while for each student, or for groups 
of students, to have actual practice in laying out a tennis court 
on I he ground. 

Questions 

1. What materials are best for the construction of a tennis court? 

2. What should be the cost of construction of a good court in 
various materials? 



92 



LESSON 24 




Bowling Green 

Ills exercise is inlroduecd here for Iwo purposes. 
The first is Lo provide an interesting lesson in 
drawing. The second is to acquaint the student 
with the design of a bowling green. 

Definition 

A howling green is a court, covered with 
thick, close turf, and used for bowling. This game of bowls upon 
the lawn is very different from the more popular game of bowling 
upon indoor alleys as practiced in America. The outdoor game is 
a favorite with Englishmen and Scotchmen, especially the latter. 
It is really a delightful outdoor sport and worthy of much wider 
acceptance in this country. It might well be introduced in parks, 
country clubs, college athletic fields and private grounds. 

Assignment 

The pupil will redraw this design to scale of 1" = 10'; or it 
may seem best to make a larger copy using the architects "quarter 
scale," i.e., 1" = 4'. Make a good clean drawing in ink. This 
design also works well when rendered in water color, but water 
color renderings are hardly worth the attempt unless the beginner 
has the personal help of an experienced teacher. 

The bowling green proper is circular and 120 feet in diameter. 
It is, of course, perfectly level. It is depressed 2 feet below the 
surrounding terrace, and this depression adds much to its ornamental 
appearance. Of course it will then require drainage. There should 
be an open drain 6 inches wide and .3 to 6 inches deep around the 
margin, and this drain should fall to one or two outlets provided 

9.3 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

with catch-basins through which the water will be carried by tiles 
to a suitable outlet. Or the whole area may be subdrained by porus 




iFceC 



Fig. 42. Pl.\x of Circular Bowxing Green" 



tile laid rather close together and comparatively near the surface. 
The design also shows a walk, certain plantings and a summer 

94 



BOWLING GREEN 



house or tea house. Such details could of course be varied to suit 
the surroundings wherever a bowling green might be built. This 
design is taken from Kemp's "Landscape Gardening." 

As usually designed the bowling green is exactly square, 120 
feet each way. 

The horticultural problem of growing a close, hard, durable 
turf on the bowling green is a very pretty one, but it cannot be 
discussed here. Information on this subject can be found in books 
on golf, since the procedure is practically the same as in producing 
golf greens. 



95 



LESSON 25 




Village Center 

HE purpose of this exercise is to call attention to 
the very interesting, often very practical and 
sometimes beautiful arrangement which occurs 
in the unplanned growth of small villages, and 
to take up the study of similar civic foci where 
they can be found in the pupil's own neighbor- 
hood. 

Description 

The plan here reproduced shows a village center at Weston, 
Mass. The principal feature is that of the beautiful stone church 
standing on a moderate rise of land at the junction of four streets. 
These streets enter the plaza of the town in a very irregular manner, 
but these very irregularities produce unusually attractive street 
vistas, as can be understood even from the plan. The pupil is 
urged to imagine what the views would be like from different points 
in these streets and what sort of photographs would be available from 
different points of view. 

It is a matter of interest to remember that the church grounds 
were laid out and planted by the late Charles Eliot, a famous land- 
scape gardener of a generation ago. 

This grouping constitutes in efTect a civic center, though the 
only public buildings here are the church, the town hall, the store 
and post office. 

Study 

The pupil should copy this plan at a scale of 1" = 20' though 
the teacher may omit the copying exercise if such a step seems 
necessary in saving time. 

96 



VILLAGE CENTER 




so 100 ISO 

I uuuil,rnJ HINUMimi UlUimiMlJ 



Fig. 43 Village Center, Weston, Mass. 



The most desirable study to be given to this problem may be 
found in the neighborhood of the school. If there are neighborhood 
centers, church grounds, schoolgrounds, street intersections or 

97 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

other foci of similar nature they should be carefully studied and 
mapped. If the different members of the class can secure such 




Fig. 44. Village Center Looking North — See Plan 

surveys from a large number of different points and these surveys 
properly drawn out can be exhibited together for comparison and 
criticism the study will prove highly advantageous. 



98 




LESSON 26 

Well-Head 

HIS lesson is intended to give the student prac- 
tice in the design of architectural details. Such 
features have to be provided in connection with 
many works in landscape gardening. If they are 
large or elaborate they should be designed by a 
competent architect. If they involve plastic fig- 
ures or groupings, a sculptor should be em- 
ployed. In a large majority of cases, however, simple details of 
this character can be worked out by the landscape gardener. Much 
depends on his taste and skill in placing such garden ornaments, 
in constructing them to the most effective scale and in making sure 
that they correspond with their garden surroundings in style and 
treatment. 

Statement 

A well-head or curb is required on every well in regular use. 
Perhaps it is true that in a majority of cases, under present day prac- 
tice, the well-head consists only of a pump surmounted by a wind- 
mill on its tower. Admittedly well-heads of the kind illustrated in 
the present lesson are not now in very general use. Nevertheless 
it is the pleasant fashion in many distinguished gardens to retain 
old wells and to decorate them with well designed curbs. These 
may be designed in a great variety of styles, a few of which are 
illustrated herewith. 

Problems 

The student should first copy some of the designs here shown. 
Copies may be made in pencil or ink, preferably the latter, and 

99 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




100 



W EL L-H EAD 




Fig. 46. Perspective Sketch 

should show various aspects of the subject under study, such as 
ground plan, elevation and perspective. 

The student should next look up other designs in other books. 
He should also explore the neighborhood in which he lives and, with 
camera or sketch book, make a record of the various well-heads 
which he finds, including installations of pumps. 

Lastly the student should design one or more well curbs, either 
by revising examples discovered during his explorations or by making 
entirely new designs. These designs should be presented in the 
form of drawings similar to those used in this lesson. 



101 




■' *.*-il 



Fig. 47. Simple Rustic Well-Head 



-"St . "^ 







Fig. 48. Picturesque Well-Head 



102 




LESSON 27 

Garden Seats 

HE purpose of this lesson is to give the student 
further opportunity for the study of architectural 
details as used in landscape gardening. It is 
expected that the student will work out a design 
for a garden seat, and the following suggestions 
are intended to help him in working out his own 
ideas. 

Illustrations 

Several garden gates are illustrated in Figures 49-54. The 
one to which the pupil's attention is first directed is the drawing, 
Figure 49, which shows a garden seat designed by Mr. Joseph F. 
Whitney, landscape architect. This seat is to be constructed of 
wood and may be painted either white or olive green. 

The other examples shown will supply various suggestions to 
the student or working landscape gardener. 

Argument 

It is very important that every garden should be adequately 
and tastefully furnished. A garden without furnishings is as in- 
complete and unsatisfactory as an unfurnished house. The home 
garden should be built for use, but it cannot be properly used and 
enjoyed unless it has pleasing and comfortable furnishings. 

Seats, tables and shelters are especially desirable, though other 
features of interest should be included, such as fountains, pools, 
bird-baths, sundials, gazing globes, statuary, pergolas, etc. etc. 
Probably the most important furnishings of all are garden seats and 
shelters, and the design, Figure 49, provides both. 

103 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




Fig. 49. Sketch for a I^aoticai, Garden Seat 

Problems 

The student should first of all make a copy of the design here 
shown in Figure 49. This figure is laid out with a T-square and 
triangle upon a drawing board, but the final drawing is done free- 

104 







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Fk;. 50. A Good Seat Well Dewignkd anu Well Placed 




1 l>,. .")]. J„\i 1,1.1.1. M 'I'li'l. 1^1' ('k.me.m Sl.vi 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 










Rustic Park Seat 



hand with a pen. The student should make his final copy either 
with pen or black pencil, preferably the former. Practice in the 
presentation of such objects is very desirable. 

106 



GARDEN SEATS 



The student should next undertake an original design for a 
garden seat. He may adopt any of the forms indicated herewith, 
though there are many other forms equally desirable. Several 




Fig. 54. W'oodkn P.^rk Bench 

suggestions can be found in Mr. Underwood's book mentioned 
below. 

It will be most desirable for the student to undertake this 
design for some particular location in some particular garden. The 
conditions thus known will determine the measurements and general 
style of the seat to be designed. The seat may then be designed for 
construction in wood, cement or other material. 

Under the most favorable conditions it will be possible for the 
student also to construct a garden seat from his own design or to 
superintend such construction. The possibility of carrying out any 
of these designs should never be overlooked. 

Reference Readings 

Underwood, The Garden and Its Accessories. 
NoRTHEND, Garden Ornaments. 



107 



LESSON 28 



Garden Gate 

HIS lesson ofl'ers another opportunity for the pupil 
to get some experience in the design of garden 
details. Garden gates of one sort or another are 
desirable in many situations. Farm gates may 
also be made attractive by good proportions and 
sound structure without any offensive "or- 
namental" treatment. 

Illustralions 

Two designs for garden gates are here shown (Figures 55 and 56). 
The first is an elevation with structural cross-section showing a 





^ 



Fig. 55. Plain G.\te of Matched Lumber 



simple gate in paneled wood. The second design shows a more 
elaborate, though still simple design, for a garden gate in open wood- 
work with spindles. Over the gate is an arch which sholud eventu- 
ally be covered with roses, trumpet vine or other good climbing 

plant. 

108 



GARDEN GATE 




Fio. 56. Sketch Desion foh Simple Gauden Gate by Dorothy Wadgh 




Fig. 'u. Old Fashioked Wooden Gate and Picket Fence 

109 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Discussion 

In all cases the garden gate offers an opportunity for effective 

design. It should be made an interesting and attractive feature. 

Nothing could better illustrate than a gate problem of this sort 

what are the essentials of good taste in design. The most attractive 




Fig. 58. Rose Arch used as .\ Garden Entrance 

gate is certainly not the one which has the most elaborate, expensive 
and fanciful ornaments. It is rather one which has good proportions, 
simplicity, dignity and sound construction. 

As will be seen in these designs and in the photographs and 
sketches reproduced in this same chapter such a garden gate can 
hardly be made attractive without the liberal use of plants, — trees, 
shrubs, vines, hardy perennials. All such materials combine de- 
lightfully with items of this kind. 

110 



GARDEN GATE 



Problems 

One or more of these designs should be copied at an enlarged 
scale. Such copies may be made in pencil, crayon, charcoal or ink. 

The pupil should make a careful hunt throughout the neighbor- 
hood for other gates, and should make photographs or drawings of 




Fig. 59. A California Garden Gate — Photograph by John W. Gregg 

every one which has any merit. A collection of such sketches will 
prove interesting and useful. 

The pupil should next make one or several designs for gates, 
preferably for known surroundings. These designs are most easily 
worked out as flat elevations to scale, but the student should also 
practice the presentation of his ideas in perspective as shown in 
Figures 46, 49 and 56. 



Ill 




LESSON 29 

Small House Lot 

HE object of this lesson is to study a typical small 
home lot. This lot has a 60 foot front and is 100 
feet deep. There are hundreds of thousands of 
home lots of approximately the same dimensions 
in American cities and towns. 

Problems 

The pupil should copy this drawing at a suitable scale. If 
time permits a water color rendering may be made. This is a suit- 
able subject for practice with water colors. 

The pupil may also make a revised plan for the same lot and 
house. 

It is highly desirable also that the pupil make additional de- 
signs for other grounds of similar character. Such work should 
be done as far as possible upon existing examples. The grounds 
should be surveyed and mapped, existing conditions of soil, drain- 
age, sunlight, etc., should be determined and taken into considera- 
tion in making up the design and selecting materials for the plant- 
ing plan. Such work, especially if carried out under a good teacher, 
may be extended to an indefinite number of examples. 

Discussion 

It will be observed that this lot faces to the north, giving the 
house also a north frontage. This orientation is commonly regarded 
as undesirable in American village life. It is on the contrary the 
most desirable frontage possible, unless the house can be faced to 
the northwest; but to realize the value of such a building lot it is 

112 



1 ¥ 



O lo io 30 ♦a 



10 9b 



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Fia. 60. Design fob Small Home Ghottnds 



113 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

necossary lo doparl from Iho cusloniary arraiiiivnuMil in iniiioiianl 
particulars. 

The most imporlanl adjuslmonl is in placing Ihc house as near 
the street as possible, thus greatly reducing the breadth of the con- 
ventional "front yard," and by the same amount increasing the 




Fio. 61. Fkont Vikw of Hodsk and GRonvns 



extent of the private garden at the rear of the house. This private 
garden now lies on the sunny south side of the house and may be 
developed into something much worth while. 

The conventional lloor plan here used might be improved by 
placing the kitchen on the northwest corner of the house and trans- 
ferring the dining room to the southwest corner. Thus the living 
room and dining room would get the maximum of sunlight and would 
look out onto the garden instead of onto the street. Much depends 
obviously on the habits and tastes of the family occupying the house. 

In front of the house is a small strip of smooth lawn. Against 
the house are simple foundation plantings. A short straight walk 

114 



SMALL HOUSE LOT 



leads to the front door, and a narrower straight walk leads to the 
service area and kitchen entrance. 

The narrow rectangular space directly east of the house, which 
is frefjuently left oi)en giving a visLa looking from Lhe street deeply 




FiQ. 62. Cozy .Small Home GnonNDS 

into the garden and grounds is here closed by small gates supported 
by plantings and a very simple enclosed formal flower garden with 
bird-bath is developed. This treatment works a complete separ- 
ation between the front yard and the private garden at the rear. 
As a rule American home gardens are seriously lacking in privacy. 

115 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

The little formal garden thus made constitutes a distinct and inter- 
esting feature of the grounds. It supplies an artistic transition 
from the front yard to the private garden. It is not merely "some- 
thing different," but it seems to lit naturally into its surroundings. 




Fig. 63. Dwarf Fruit Trees abe Suitable for the Small House Lot 

The main feature of the grounds is the family lawn or garden 
occupying a main portion of the space immediately south of the 
house. The principal living room window looks out across this 
lawn to a rose arch which forms a passageway into the vegetable 
garden at the rear. The east and west ends of this garden are 
bordered by hardy shrubs. The south side has a border of flowers. 
At the northeast corner is the only large shade tree provided in 
these small grounds. This may be an oak, elm, maple or any other 
deciduous species of good size and dignified appearance. It is 

116 



SMALL HO USE LOT 



placed southeastward from the house in such a position that its 
shadow will be thrown upon the building during the heat of the day. 
This design is adapted to a practically level lot. Where con- 
siderable slope is found, either toward or away from the street, the 
problems of architecture and garden design are seriously compli- 
cated, though very delightful arrangements can be secured if enough 
competent study is given to such problems. 

Readings 

Rehmann, The Small Place, New York, 1918. 

Kellaway, How to Lay Out Suburban Home Grounds, New York, 1907. 

Hamblin, Book of Garden Plans, New York, 1916. 

Root, Landscape Garden Series, Book H. 



117 




LESSON 30 

Suburban Home Grounds 

HIS exercise presents a typical example of home 
garden design in which it is the intent to empha- 
size the fundamental structural features. 

Exercise 

All members of the class should copy this 
drawing to a suitable scale. The drawing, Figure 64, presents the 
plan in ink; in Figure 65 the same plan is rendered in water colors. 
The teacher will decide whether the pupils should undertake these 
reproductions in one medium or both. If the class has time enough 
on this course it will be well to use both methods. 

Explanation 

First we may observe the orientation of the house, which faces 
the northwest. This brings the living rooms and principal bed- 
rooms on the southeast and southwest angles where they will secure 
a maximum of sunlight. 

Next we should consider the most important feature of the 
design which consists in the subdivision of the grounds into three 
distinct parts, based on use. These parts are — 

a. The public portion, or front yard. 

b. The private portion, or family garden. 

c. The service portion, including laundry yard, garage, 

vegetable garden, etc. 
The front yard is on the same side of the house as the public 
room, i.e., the front hall, with which it directly connects. The 
family garden connects directly with the living room and has the 

118 




119 










i .s 



121 



SUBURBAN HOME GROUNDS 



same character of private family use. The service area connects 
with the kitchen and laundry. These three areas are somewhat 




Fig. tjij. CoTTAcK Kesidence and Subuhban Home Grounds 

distinctly separated from one another. The plan of the grounds 
thus becomes structurally related to the plan of the house. Both 
plans are based clearly on daily use. 

The front yard is comparatively small, as the front hall should 

123 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



be. One would hardly want his front hall to be larger, better fur- 
nished and more important than the living rooms of his house; 
yet on thousands of suburban grounds the front yard constitutes 
practically the whole of the grounds. 

The family garden in this plan is the largest and most im- 
portant area. It is enclosed, being shut off especially from the 




lio. 67. The Flower Cusden" is a Feature of Suburban Ckountos 

street. It should have the same privacy as the living rooms of the 
house. It should have many attractive features such as flower 
garden, pool, croquet or tennis court, fruit trees, etc. It should 
also be furnished for use, with seats, tables, shelters. (The summer 
house or shelter is here shown between the formal flower garden and 
the main lawn.) The flower garden is shown enclosed by a hedge 
and somewhat formalized, with the main axis upon the axis line of 
the living room. This is designed to give a particularly effective 
picture when viewed from the French door and windows of the 
main family room. 

Other features to be noticed are (a) the large deciduous trees 

124 



SUBURBAN HOME GROUNDS 

at the south and west of the house where they will cast their shadows 
on the house walls; (b) the trees at the north and northwest placed 
so as to frame in the view of the house as seen from the street; (c) 
the bird garden which serves also as a screen for the service yard 
and a windbreak, and which can be seen from the dining-room 
windows; (d) the foundation plantings; (e) the economical Y turn 
for the automobile; (/) the inclusion of fruit trees in the garden 
scheme, where on the south there may be a direct transition from 
the family garden to the orchard. 

Questions 

Why is privacy important for the family garden? Does Ameri- 
can practice give less privacy to the home grounds than is cus- 
tomary in England, Germany, France or Italy? Are there good 
reasons for this difference? 



125 




LESSON 31 

Suburban Home Grounds 

HIS lesson is intended to give further opportunity 
for the study of the problem involved in the de- 
velopment of home grounds — one of the most 
important problems in landscape gardening. The 
solution for the home grounds problem naturally 
varies greatly with varying physical conditions, 
and even more with the domestic requirements 
and tastes of different families. The present problem should be 
studied in connection with other home grounds problems taken 
up in lessons 29, 30 and 32. 

Illustration 

The plan shown in Figure 68 was prepared by Mr. 0. C. 
Simonds,* landscape architect, Chicago, Illinois, for a home lot in 
Cedar Rapids, Iowa. The tract is a suburban lot of rather large 
size, approximately 115 by 270 feet and sloping toward the back. 

Solution 

It will be observed that the solution of this problem is based 
clearly upon the principles explained in Lesson 30. The space 
is plainly divided into three areas (1) the public lawn or front 
yard (2) the private grounds and garden, opening directly from the 
principal living rooms and comprising a sort of outdoor theater 
lawn, a flower garden, a formal garden, pool, pergola and a more or 
less ornamental vegetable garden (3) the service area at the north- 
west angle of the house and connected directly with the service 

*Simonds, Landscape Gardening, p. 133, New York, 1920. 
126 




Sca/e in Feet 

Fig. 68. Design for Large Suburban Lot 



127 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

rooms of the dwelling, this area including kitchen yard, garage, 
automobile turn, an area for hot-bed, compost heap, and other garden 
and kitchen services. 

In the present plan the house has been placed relatively far 
back from the street, an arrangement justified by the large size of 




h'lLi. li'J. lLuwh;iuNG Dogwood on the Lawn 



the house and by the ample size of the grounds. This gives space 
for a naturalistic park-like treatment of the front yard, a treat- 
ment highly approved by American taste and practice. 

The private garden is worked out in semi-formal style on two 
levels, the various parts being compactly arranged. This gives a feel- 
ing of snugness and intimacy desirable in every family garden and 
essential to the success of a formal garden. It is easy to imagine 
that this garden, when fully developed, would yield a large number 
of very attractive photographs. This means that it would present 

128 



SUBURBAN HOME GROUNDS 

many pleasing views. Such a test is highly appropriate to any 
piece of landscape gardening, especially to works of this particular 
sort. 

The automobile drive is provided with a Y turn at the garage. 
Next to the house the drive is widened on the curve. This not only 
makes the curve easier but provides space in which an automobile 
may stand during the day without blocking the passage. 

The entire grounds are enclosed by a heavy border of trees and 
shrubs, the chief purpose of which is to secure privacy. 

Problems 

The pupil should copy this plan at a suitable scale, probably 
1" = 20'. The copy should be made in ink. It may be colored 
with crayon or water-color. This is an excellent plan for rendering 
in either of these media. 

Secondly the student may make a new plan suggesting alter- 
native arrangements for the same house and grounds. 

If proper supervision and criticism are at hand the student 
should make complete planting lists for these grounds, specifying 
the kinds and numbers of trees and shrubs to be used. 

The student may also work out detailed plans for various 
features in these grounds, especially the pergola, the pool, the garden 
steps and wall, or even the garage. 

This is an important design and considerable time can ad- 
vantageously be spent upon it. 

Reading 
SiMONDS, Landscape Gardening, Chap. VIII. 



129 




LESSON 32 

Formal Garden 

HIS lesson should give the pupil an introduction 
to the principles involved in the design of formal 
'^) gardens and to some of the considerations which 
y^ influence the use of the formal style in land- 
scape gardening. 

Definition 

The formal style in landscape gardening is that method of de- 
sign which employs a geometrical and symmetrical arrangement 
of parts. It is distinguished from the natural style which employs 
the forms and invokes the spirit of nature. Any deflnition of the 
formal style should include also the idea that the formal garden is 
animated Ijy a spirit entirely different from that of the naturalistic 
garden. Speaking broadly this is the human spirit as contrasted 
with the spirit of wild nature. The formal garden connected with 
the private dwelling should be snug, intimate, personal, inviting to 
social loitering, obviously the work of human hands and obviously 
intended for human use. The large formal gardens, like those of 
Versailles and of princely estates and public grounds generally, are 
quite as plainly the work of human hands and as clearly intended 
for human use, though in this case for the public use of large com- 
panies. 

It is essential here to observe that ever^^ work of landscape 
gardening, if it be in any degree successful, must have both a form 
and a spirit, and that these two must be closely correlated and fully 
adapted to one another. Any description, therefore, of any garden, 
or any definition of any style, must consider both its form and its 
spirit. And though spirit is hard to define and hard to understand 

130 



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Fic. 70. Genkkal Plan fok Formal Garden 




Fig. 71. The House as Seen From the Gabden 






131 



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FiQ. 72. The Garden Gate and Rose Arch 





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Fig. 73. The Bird B.^^th 




Fig. 74. The Garden Seat 
132 



FORMAL GARDEN 



it is the more important of the two, so that a special effort must be 
made to fix this quahty clearly in mind. 

Argument 

Much time has been wasted in years gone by in arguing that the 
formal style is better than the natural style, or vice versa. Power- 
ful arguments may be made in the abstract for either style; but 
practically, as well as from the highest standpoint of art, the decision 
is always to be made, not on abstractions, but in view of concrete 
conditions existing in particular instances. Thus in one set of con- 
ditions and on a given piece of property a design in the formal style 
may have overwhelming advantages, while on another piece of land 
and under different requirements the natural style may be clearly 
preferable. This principle is now generally recognized by all com- 
petent landscape gardeners, and controversy on these matters is 
possible only between persons of quite limited education and narrow 
views. 

Working Rules 

It is always dangerous in art matters to lay down dogmatic 
rules. While recognizing these dangers it still seems best to make 
certain rules or suggestions covering the design of gardens in the 
formal style. These should prove helpful to the beginner, who must 
understand, however, that the experienced designer is sometimes 
able to break some of these rules without disaster. With such 
limitations in mind the following rules are offered: 

1. Formal gardening should be attempted only on relatively 
small areas. For the ordinary family garden one-fourth to one-half 
acre would be the maximum allowance; for a very pretentious private 
mansion 1 to 2 acres; for large public grounds 3 to 5 acres. Best 
results are usually secured on areas considerably smaller than these 
maxima. 

2. The area should be rectangular or nearly so. Circular or 
semi-circular areas can sometimes be designed, but they are diffi- 
cult. 

133 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



3. The area should be level or nearly so. Where it slopes dis- 
tinctly it should be brought to two or more levels by terracing. 

4. The formal garden should be wholly and distinctly enclosed 
by buildings, walls, hedges, etc. Occasional outlooks may be pro- 




J^ a u ij^n e r ^ a 



rm 



Fig. 75. Plan of a Famous Formal Garden in Massachusetts 

vided through or over these bounds, but they must be managed with 
great skill. 

5. In this rectangular space no definite proportion between 
length and breadth is obligatory, but best Jesuits can usually be 
secured with a ratio about 7: 5 or 8: 5. 

6. Each garden must have as its chief structural feature a 
major axis. This will nearly always be developed on the median 
longitudinal line. In exceptional cases the main axis may be de- 
veloped transversely to the greatest length of the garden. 

134 



FORMAL GARDEN 



7. At right angles to this major axis a minor axis should be 
developed. In some cases two or three minor axes are permissible. 
In rare cases also the minor axis may be merely indicated or entirely 
suppressed. 

8. The minor axis or axes must be distinctly subordinate to 
the major axis in all particulars, — in width, in length (usually). 




Fig. 76. General View of a Formal Garden 



in interest and in termini (see 10, 11 and 12). In a garden having 
several minor axes their combined length should be less than the 
length of the major axis. 

9. Major and minor axes will often be treated as paths. These 
paths should be nicely proportioned to the size of the gardens. 
As a mere suggestion the width of the path on the major axis may 

135 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

be about 10 per cent of the width of the garden; that of the minor 
axis less. 

10. Each axis must be provided with suitable termini, and 
these termini must appear definitely at the ends of the axes. 

11. These termini must be objects of definite interest and 
beauty. Those features most commonly employed are fountains, 
sun dials, seats, arbors, pergolas (of doubtful suitability), statues, 
tea houses, and small buildings generally. A broad outlook over 
several miles of beautiful scenery does not terminate any axis; and 
it is never permissible to allow any axis to disappear into any ex- 
terior view. 

12. These terminal features must be carefully proportioned 
in size and interest to the length and importance of the axes on which 
they are placed. Roughly speaking the height of the terminal 
features may be 10 per cent of the total length of the axis. Fea- 
tures on the major axis must be distinctly larger and more interest- 
ing than those on the minor axis. In case several minor axes are 
developed their termini must be plain and inconspicuous; never- 
theless definite terminal features must be provided. 

13. Fountains, arbors, belvideres, etc., must not be built with- 
in the garden so as to obstruct the general view. Under no circum- 
stances should anything be built upon any axis intermediate be- 
tween the termini in such a manner as to interrupt the axis line. 
The intersections of axes may often be marked by pools of flat 
water (not playing fountains). Pools in this position are attractive 
on account of the reflections they offer toward the principal points 
of view. 

14. Whatever treatment is given to the free rectangular spaces 
outside the axes is better apphed to the margins of such spaces than 
to the centers. The centers of such spaces should be left free, or 
at any rate should not be made sites for mass effects of architecture 
or planting which would compete in interest with the axial termini. 



136 



FORMAL GARDEN 



15. Color effects, where attempted, are better developed along 
the boundaries, in walls, hedges or border plantings, than in the in- 
terior spaces. 

16. Details of architecture and sculpture must of course be 
kept consistent throughout the garden. Simple and classical forms 
are usually to be preferred. So-called "rustic" works are seldom 
appropriate. 

Illustration 

Figure 70 represents a formal garden in approximately its 
simplest terms. A dwelling house bounds the garden on the east 
with hedges on north and south and a high wooden fence on the 
west end (Rule 4). The major axis lies lengthwise of the garden 
and the minor axis bisects this at right angles (Rules 6 and 7). 
These axes are terminated by the dwelling house door, the arched 
gateway, the bird-bath and the seat (Rules 10, 11, 13). These 
terminal features are sketched in Figures 71, 72, 73 and 74. 

Another formal garden, a much more elaborate example, is 
shown in Figure 75. This is the famous formal garden at "Faulkner 
Farm," Brookline, Massachusetts, and was designed by Mr. Charles 
A. Piatt, of New York. The main terminal feature, on the main 
axis opposite the dwelling, consists of a beautiful summer house 
connected with a pergola or peristyle. 

Problems 

The pupil should look up other plans and photographs of formal 
gardens, all of which should be examined in detail to see how nearly 
they conform to or how far they depart from the rules given in this 
lesson. The pupil must of course consider for himself how far such 
studies confirm the rules. 

The most valuable studies in this lesson, however, will be possible 
if the pupil is able to visit one or more formal gardens, especially if 
he is so fortunate as to gain admittance to good gardens designed 
by competent landscape architects and developed by owners of 

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TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

taste. If in any manner possible such gardens should be carefully 
surveyed and mapped. They will, of course, be tested by the rules 
already studied. 

Finally the pupil should design one or more formal gardens. 
Purely imaginary problems are not without value; but generally 
it is much better to make these designs for known pieces of ground 
and known conditions. 



138 




LESSON 33 

A Garden in the Natural Style 

HE purpose of this lesson is to bring before the 
student the principles underlying the use of the 
natural style in landscape gardening, more es- 
pecially the use of this style in the small domestic 
garden. 

Discussion 

The natural style of landscape gardening has its most impor- 
tant application in the preservation and development of large areas 
of natural scenery such as those found in National Parks, National 
Forests, State Parks and Forests, large country parks owned by 
municipalities, and grounds of large country clubs. It is well 
adapted also to the development of large private estates, and in a 
more or less modified form comes into good use in developing such 
areas as college campuses, city parks and park cemeteries. A still 
further modified naturalistic or informal style of landscape gardening 
may be made entirely satisfactory upon small home grounds. 

Americans and Englishmen generally have a strong and inborn 
preference for this natural type of scenery and for the natural style 
of landscape gardening founded upon it. For this reason the natural 
style is sometimes forced upon land unadapted to it and into an 
environment better suited to formal types of gardening. There is 
also a popular notion (which is very far from the truth) that the 
natural style of landscape gardening is very easy to do. The idea 
seems to be that as long as objects are kept away from straight lines, 
all walks are made crooked and all plantings irregular, the result is 
informal and must necessarily be natural. The fact is quite the 
contrary. The truly successful piece of natural gardening arti- 

139 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




Fig. 77. Village Home GRonNDS in the Natural Style 
140 



A GARDEN IN THE NATURAL STYLE 

ficially accomplished is one of the rarest pieces of fine art in existence. 
Indeed it requires high skill, hardly short of genius, simply to let 
natural landscape successfully alone. 

Let the student consider therefore that the natural style in 
landscape gardening is not to be lightly undertaken. It is a pro- 
found art and must be studied long and seriously. Successful prac- 
tice must be founded upon a deep reverence and love for the native 
landscape.* 

Governing Principles 

Rules have only a limited application anywhere in the fine 
arts. They are especially dangerous in such a difficult and half- 
understood art as natural landscape gardening. Nevertheless for 
the guidance of beginners it seems best, after emphasizing these 
limitations, to offer a series of rules which will at least stimulate the 
student's observation. The student is therefore urged to follow 
these rules carefully until he is perfectly sure of his ground before 
he adopts any contrary methods. 

Working Rules 

1. Every informal park or garden should be partially or wholly 
enclosed in order to give it a feehng of unity and sometimes of 
privacy; but this enclosure need not be so obvious nor so complete 
as in the formal garden. Good outlooks should be especially pre- 
served. The enclosure will be composed chiefly of borders of trees 
and shrubs. 

2. The main structural features will usually be roads, paths, 
trails, or navigable waters; and the principal one of these lines will, 
as nearly as practicable, circumscribe the area under treatment. 

3. The principal considerations in locating drives, walks, etc. 

* It is impossible in the space of a short chapter to expound fully this 
natural style. The student is urged to give careful attention to the author's 
larger work "The Natural Style in Landscape Gardening." 

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TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

will be (a) the shape of the area, {b) topography, (c) convenience 
of travel between important points, (d) development of views. 

4. To secure unity of artistic efTect a suitable motive or theme 
should be selected and should be adhered to as closely as possible. 
Under no circumstances should elTocts at variance with the leading 
motive be introduced. 

5. The successive episodes in the development of this motive 
will apiiear at well marked points, which points will all be upon the 
main structural roads or paths, thus developing the theme in a 
paragraphic manner. 

6. The principal landscape elTects will be brought together at 
these paragraphic points. At these points will occur (a) the prin- 
cipal changes in direction of roads or paths, (b) principal change of 
grade, (c) change of planting, [d) principal interior or exterior views, 
(e) but especially the culmination of the motive episode. 

7. It is desirable to avoid the use of straight lines and radial 
curves; but awkward, and unnatural curved or crooked lines must 
be equally avoided. 

Illustration 

The example here offered shows a wild garden approximately 120 
X 270 feet in size and lying in a ravine at the back of a larger 
home lot. This home lot is at the top of a bank southeastward from 
the wild garden into which it merges. 

This ravine has a small running brook which has been dammed 
at the lower end to form an artificial pool. This brook is the leading 
feature of the area and naturally should be adopted as the principal 
motive. The banks are well set with good native trees and native 
shrubbery. There are also many native wikl flowers, and more 
can be introduced. Even the marsh is a delightfully picturesque 
feature inhabited by red-winged blackbirds. 

The comparatively high wooded bank supplies a practicable 
enclosure with a sense of privacy and unity. (Rule 1.) 

The main structural feature is a walk which comes down from 

142 




143 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

the home grounds, follows along the sloping bank of the brook, 
passes over the dam at the foot of the pool and returns to the garden 
above. (Rules 2 and 3.) 




,]ens .Iknsen, Designer 



The brook and its appendages have been adopted as the leading 
motive for this wild garden. The path follows in general the course 
of the brook and all the views and all the plant growth belong 
naturally to this type of scenery. (Rule 1.) 

Six principal views are shown at paragraphic points along the 
principal walks. (Rule 5.) 

Problems 

First let the student copy this design in pencil and crayon after 
the manner shown in Figure 92. He should consider whether the 
principal views have been properly placed, whether the best views 
have been chosen, whether any reconstruction (such as the draining 
of the marsh or the omission of the pool) might work to the im- 
provement of the plan. 

Next the student should undertake to discover, define and 

144 



A GARDEN IN THE NATURAL STYLE 

describe particular landscape motives in his own neighborhood. 
When such a motive is found the student should then isolate several 
episodes (possible paragraphs; showing various aspects of the motive. 
This sort of practice is suggested further in the lesson entitled "The 
Landscape Links," Lesson XX, page 800. 

After such preliminary study the student should undertake to 
lay out small tracts of land in the natural style. First attempts 
should be made upon sections of natural landscape on which only 
minor improvements will be required. From such problems one 
may proceed to larger areas, to more varied topography, to more 
complex motives, and to conditions where a larger proportion of 
the work has to be done out of hand — where extensive grading and 
planting operations are involved. 

As this natural style covers so large a part of what is popularly 
understood as landscape gardening it will be well for the student 
to spend considerable time on this subject, working up several prob- 
lems. 

Readings 

Waugh, The Natural Style in Landscape Gardening. 

Downing, Landscape Gardening. 

Hubbard and Kimball, Landscape Design, Part IV. 



145 




LESSON 34 

Farmstead Group 

HIS lesson gives the opportunity to study the 
economic and artistic grouping of farm buildings. 
The considerations here presented have special 
reference to conditions existing in the prairie 
farming states of the Middle West, though to 
a large extent the same principles should govern 
the layout of a farm group anywhere. 

Definition 

For the purpose of this discussion a farmstead is understood to 
be a group of buildings used upon a farm, with the adjacent en- 
closures and plantings. These will include farm dwelling house, 
barns, granaries, house-yard, barn-yard, feed-yards, water supply, 
etc. 

Illustration 

The farmstead here shown was designed by Mr. R. J. Pearse, 
landscape architect, of Des Moines, Iowa, and executed for Mr. 
W. J. Osgood of Sheldon, Iowa. The following discussion of the 
principles involved in making such a design is written by Mr. Pearse. 

Discussion 

The farmstead is the business front of the farming profession. 
It occupies less space, is more expensive and more productive than 
any other part of the farm. For that reason there is a greater 
chance for useless expenditure and diminished returns. 

As the most expensive part of the farm, representing a perma- 

146 



FARMSTEAD GROUP 



Jllll h ,| l| IMLI' , E V E R. G RE E M , '.I/Im w r M DBEEAK V I ''l l| ' ' !l||f||||(!i' 

MJjllj|l|||||'|fl|||/||,.l^.KJj||pj)JJU^ ^ 



fe^ , 






g o 00,00 

S; O O O O O 
OGO 




Graphic Scale 
Fig. 80. General Plan of Iowa Farmstead 

nent investment, there is all the more reason for the most careful 
expenditure of money and the most careful planning to reap the 
greatest returns. Farmstead planning is the scientific arrange- 
ment of the different parts which make up the business front of the 
farm, in such a manner that the greatest returns will be shown in 
the most economical use of space, the convenience in operating the 

147 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

farm, and last, but not least, the attractive appearance of the entire 
layout. 

Some of the most essential features which must be considered 
in planning the location of a set of farm buildings are (a) size of 
farm, (b) farmed by tenant or owner, (c) probable use as stock, hay, 
grain or general purpose farm, (rf) amount to be spent in buildings, 
(e) probable effectiveness of upkeep, (/) probable increase or decrease 
in present size of farm. 

The first choice to be made after the general considerations are 
in mind is that of a proper site for the location of the farm build- 
ings. Because of the close relation which the farmstead bears to 
the usability of the entire farm, the site must be chosen with the 
utmost care. This is usually chosen with reference to the proximity 
to town, school, church and the administrative center of the farm. 
The best location is at one side of the center of the farm and near 
the best public highway. 

A farmstead should have proper air, light and drainage and not 
too much exposure to winds. South and east slopes are the most 
desirable, and a gravel knoll is best for the location of a farmstead 
because of the advantage to be obtained by thorough drainage and 
consequently dry feed-yards at all times. 

For the general purpose farm, the hollow square or rectangular 
system of arrangement of buildings is the most satisfactory. It is 
not unusual to find this system used on the farms of many of the 
best farmers who have given a great deal of thought and care in the 
planning of their farmsteads. The hollow square system, as in- 
dicated by the name, is built up around a hollow square or rectangle 
with buildings on three sides, the fourth side opening upon a public 
highway. 

In this system we have three groups of buildings viz: — the 
house group, the barn group and the feed group, each dominated 
by the main building in each group, the house, the barn and the 
elevator. Standing in the public highway facing the location of the 
new farmstead, keeping in mind the hollow square with buildings 

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TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

should be not less than 110 feet wide by 120 feet long parallel to the 
public highway. The barn should be located at the end or side of 
this farm-yard; in either case it is much farther from the highway 
than the house. If the barn is at the side of the barn-yard it should 
be directly in front of the entrance driveway. The end of the barn 
bearing the hay door should open into the farm-yard in order to 
avoid opening gates in putting hay in the barn. If this door can 
be located on the north or east side of the barn it is the most desirable 
as it avoids the hot sun on summer afternoons. 

The elevator or feed building with its companion building, the 
hog barn, might be located at the left side of the farm-yard. A 
double elevator with a driveway passing through should be so lo- 
cated that it is possible to drive from the fields between the cribs 
or granaries without opening any gates. 

A cement feed floor beside the elevator is a feed saver and 
is the best location for self feeders, water tank, etc. A floor on the 
north side of an elevator should be avoided because of the ice and 
snow which accumulate there in winter and the dampness at differ- 
ent times of the year. 

A hog barn should be located with direct access to the cement 
feed floor, the feed building and a hog pasture; and especially one 
entrance door should open out upon the farm-yard to avoid the useless 
opening of gates. 

A machine shed might be located at the corner of the farm-yard 
near the barn, and a road to the fields might lead between the barn 
and machine shed, making it easier to place machinery in the shed 
rather than in a location at a distant point of the farmstead. A 
small service yard in connection with the machine shed is always 
desirable to store wire fencing, fence posts, old machinery and other 
such material. Both the garage and poultry house should be lo- 
cated on the side of the farmstead nearest the house, a door of each 
should if possible open directly from the door-yard to give ready 
access from the house. 

With the buildings located according to these principles, it will 

149 



FARMSTEAD GROUP 



surrounding, it would be natural to locate the main buildings one 
at the right, one at the left and the third directly in front of the main 
entrance. For example if the house is at the right, the elevator at 
the left, the barn would probably be directly in front. The house 
should naturally occupy the most advantageous location, not less 
than 100 feet* from the road and dominating the entire farmstead 




FiQ. 81. View prom Main Entrance 



and also the best views along the highway. A broad roadway not 
less than 32 feet wide should be the approach from the highway 
past the house to the farm-yard and should not be located less than 
40 feet from the nearest side of the house. 

A door yard fence surrounding the house not less than 40 feet 
from the side and the rear marks the side of the barn-yard proper 
or the hollow square surrounded by buildings. 

The entrance driveway will usually enter the center of the 
barn-yard on the side next to the road. This will locate the farm- 
yard regardless of its size. For a quarter section of land, this size 

* This distance, viz., 100 feet, is too great for many farms in the 
eastern States; also for small farms in the fruit regions of Oregon, Washington 
and California. F. A. W. 

150 



FARMSTEAD GROUP 



be found that in front and at the side of the house opposite from the 
farm buildings a lawn can be established of reasonable size. Between 
the highway and the barn and extending parallel to the highway an 
open area is shown which has its best use as a show pasture. It 
not only gives a most desirable foreground to the buildings, but it 
also may act as a living bulletin board with salable live stock pas- 
tured there, either for sale or advertising value to be observed by 
travelers along the highway. 

Stock yards adjacent to the barn and hog barn should be of 
sufTicient size to care for the stock that is to use them. They should 
be of easy access, convenient in feeding, and with convenient easy 
operating gates opening from one to another. A small farm orchard 
near the machine shed and reasonably close to the poultry house is 
very desirable. A farm vegetable garden should be located near the 
house with one entrance gate leading directly from the door-yard. 

A few well placed permanent shade trees should be planted near 
the house in order to shade it and the lawn but not to obscure de- 
sirable views of the highway. A permanent evergreen windbreak 
protecting the sides of the farmstead from the prevailing winds is 
always desirable. 

In general, farm buildings should be located so their long axis 
runs north and south in order to give the best ventilation and san- 
itation by the sun shining on either side at different times of 
the day. 

The following suggestions should be kept in mind as necessary 
considerations in planning any farmstead: 

1. Entrance drive should strike at some good building. 

2. House itself should be placed so that one room at least will 
command the view of the entire barn-yard. 

3. Barn-yard group should be farther away from the road than 
house group. 

4. Barn-yard group should be rectangular in form, with build- 
ings arranged around a court with their backs opening into the 
several yards. 

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TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

5. Feed buildings (elevator or corncrib), should be placed be- 
tween buildings needing the feed for animals housed in them. 

6. Water tank, machine shed, horse barn and entrance to 
fields should be close together. 

7. Barn should be 150 feet or more from the house. 

8. Barn and hog house should not be too far from the house, 
in order to more easily care for young stock in cold weather. 

9. Ventilation in summer is just as important as protection 
in winter. 




I'lij. S2. \ iLw oi' 11l.,idence and Garage 



Study 

The pupil should give careful study to the foregoing discussion 
in order to understand clearly the reasons for each step in farmstead 
planning. Should these studies be taken up in any school or college 
where farm management is also taught it will be desirable to correlate 
this lesson with the instruction given in farm management. The 
design of the farmstead, like any other problem in landscape garden- 

152 



FARMSTEAD GROUP 



ing, cannot be worked out unless all practical requirements are 
fully met. Obviously these requirements cannot be adequately 
met unless they are clearly understood. In short it will be necessary, 
in order to achieve the best results, for the designer to have a com- 
prehensive knowledge of farm practice. To this he should add an 
equal understanding of the principles of design, i.e. the principles 
of landscape gardening. 

Problems 

After the pupil has completed the preliminary studies recom- 
mended above he should experiment extensively in the effort to 
apply these principles under different conditions. 

Problem 1. The plan of "Welworth" here reproduced should 
be redrawn to a large scale, preferably 1" = 10'. This drawing may 
be made on cheap detail paper with coarse black pencil and may be 
finished with colored crayons. Or it may less desirably be drawn 
upon a blackboard. The large drawing is then to be used for pur- 
poses of critical discussion in which the teacher and several pupils 
should join. If one or more practical farmers can be brought into 
the discussions of the regular pupils there will be an added interest. 

In this discussion every point should be challenged and all 
possible alternatives considered. Questions like the following should 
be pressed home: Is the barn-yard too large? Large enough? Is 
the house too close to the road? Too far from the barn? Has the 
best location for the garage been found? Has the barn the best 
possible orientation? Will the yards have proper drainage? Etc., 
etc., etc. 

Problem 2. Visit some good farm and make a detailed meas- 
ured map of the existing farmstead. Draw this out to same scale as 
the plan in problem 1, in order to facilitate comparison. Place these 
two plans side by side, and consider in detail whether No. 2 is better 
or worse than No. 1. What are the most palpable faults of No. 2? 
What alternations could advantageously be made? 

If there are several pupils in the class they should map several 

153 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

different existing farmsteads in this way, and all these various plans 
may be brought into this discussion. 

Problem 3. Select a farm not fully or properly equipped with 
buildings. After careful examination choose a site for a farmstead, 
comparing point by point the alternative possible sites. Survey the 
tract of land thus chosen, draw out the survey to a convenient scale, 
probably 1" = 20', and on this survey design a complete farmstead 
adapted to the needs of the farm. 



154 




LESSON 35 

New England Farm Group 

HE object of this lesson is to extend further the 
study of the grouping of farm buildings. In the 
present lesson a somewhat different type of 
grouping is presented, based less on theoretical 
considerations than on long practical experience. 
The typical New England farmstead con- 
sists of a group of buildings connected in a long 
line running east and west, facing south. The dwelling house is 
placed next to the public road, back of this comes a kitchen wing, 
then a wood-shed, then wagon-sheds, after which follow tool houses 
and other buildings, the line commonly terminating with a large 
barn. 

Example 

The example here illustrated, plate 83, presents an actual sur- 
vey of an existing farm group in Amherst, Mass. It should be 
studied in careful comparison with the middle-western farmstead 
illustrated in Lesson 34, and it should be borne in mind that the 
present layout represents a gradual development covering approx- 
imately 150 years, whereas the farmstead plan shown in plate 80 
represents a modern plant built to order under the direction of a 
trained landscape architect. Even under these circumstances it 
will appear that this New England layout is not badly adapted to 
governing conditions. 

Discussion 

It will be seen that the dwelling house" is placed much nearer to 

the road than recommended by Mr. R. J. Pearse for Iowa conditions 

(see page 149) and that the entrance drive also runs much nearer 

to the house. 

155 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



Field 










1 



We^eiai>le 
Qaix/en 



3 T R. E E T 



Fig. 83. Typical New England Farm Group 



156 



NEW ENGLAND FARM GROUP 

The entire arrangement of buildings is exceedingly compact, 
thus securing some economies in construction and much more im- 
portant economies in handling the daily farm chores. 

There are some drawbacks to this very compact arrangement. 
The ones usually mentioned are first the additional risk of fire: 
if a fire starts in one building it is almost certain to carry off the en- 
tire group. A second objection is that the house is too close to the 
barn, so that flies and the barn smells cause discomfort in the dwell- 
ing house. The latter objection, however, may be as readily over- 
come in this grouping as in any other. 




Fig. 84. View fbom the Soxjth — Compare with Plan 

Observation 

It will be noticed that the primary line of buildings in this case 
has been returned toward the south from the barn, and that the 
latest poultry house even returns slightly westward, thus breaking 
somewhat the original hnear arrangement and approximating the 
quadrangular group recommended and illustrated in Lesson 34. 

157 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Problems 

If typical linear groupings can be found in the neighborhood 
each student should make actual surveys of existing groups. These 
surveys should be mapped to a uniform scale (r'==10' is sug- 
gested) and these layouts made by dilTerent members of the class 
should be exhibited together and criticized in detail in comparison 
with each other and with ideal standards. 

Class criticism should be directed further to a very thorough 
comparison of the merits of the linear group with the quadrangular 
group. 

Finally the pupil should design one or more entirely new groups 
of farm buildings based on the principle of linear arrangement. If 
possible these designs should be made for known farms where the 
actual farming requirements are understood. 



158 




LESSON 36 

Farmstead Layout 

NE more lesson is here given to the subject of 
farmstead planning. In this lesson a purely the- 
oretical layout is presented. This will enable the 
student to observe even more closely that in the 
two preceding lessons how the principles of land- 
scape gardening should be applied to the group- 
ing of farm buildings. 

Illustration 

The example here illustrated was worked out by Professor 
Phillip H. Elwood Jr., then of the Massachusetts Agricultural Col- 
lege, now of Ohio State University. The area represented is prac- 
tically level land, with the public road at the north of the build- 
ings, an arrangement which is usually desirable in spite of popular 
prejudice to the contrary. 

The general plan of arrangement is that of a rectangle, as 
recommended by Mr. Pearse (page 148). The dwelling house closes 
the front of this rectangle. The main storage and stock barn stands 
on the opposite side of the quadrangle; while minor buildings close 
the eastern and western ends. 

It will be observed that the entire arrangement is somewhat 
more compact than the design for "Welworth" shown on page 147. 
Space is economized especially in the grounds immediately con- 
tiguous to the dwelling house; the house is placed much closer to 
the road and the entrance drive much closer to the house. Such an 
arrangement seems to be more favored in the eastern states at the 
present time, whereas the larger front-yard as developed at "Wel- 
worth" seems to represent more nearly the popular ideal in the 

159 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



] t -' .. ^ . j . i w . ti ■ ^^t" ■l l ■■ «^ u 

ir •'".'^':_.''."-r-....'.t ^^ 




■H 1 (i-H L It 



^2-Zr,Q Q Q 

^ '^Q Q 

a 






o 



SUGGSSTiP ALLAnGtMtHT 
'of 

•■•"TT - ' - 

3Nkt 1'- 50' *PP»OX 

Miss.-A^k, Cou. -AMHtR^T, Mass 

Civic l«HTCix|- Jak 21. 1313. 



Fig. 85. lnE.\LizED Farmstead 

middle west. Either disposition is perfectly legitimate from the 
standpoint of landscape design. 

The present design shows the flower and vegetable garden ar- 
ranged in compact formal style at the west end of the house and 
connected with it by a short path. Such an arrangement would 
give a pleasant outlook from the house and should prove an at- 
tractive feature on any well-kept farm. 

Problems 

The student should copy this design at a scale of 1" = 20'. 
The copy may be made in pencil and colored in crayon, or rendered 
in some other medium if preferred. 

160 



FARMSTEAD LAYOUT 



It is important to compare this design in detail with the others 
already presented in Lessons 34 and 35 and to consider critically 
the validity of each suggestion offered. For example, are the milk 
and cream rooms placed in the most advantageous position? Is 
the woodshed too far from the house? Are the laundry and laundry 
yard too far from the house? Is the area marked "play lawn" and 
separated from the barn-yard by a hedge a practical feature? Would 
it be better to relegate the vegetable garden to another location on 
the farm where it could be cultivated with a horse cultivator? 

The student should also undertake for himself to work out 
original designs in this quadrangular method. This may be done 
first for purely imaginary grounds, ])ut it is better finally to make 
such designs for given farms where the topography can be surveyed 
and all the conditions known. 

Readings 

Roberts, The Farmstead, Chap. VI. 

Davidson, Agricultural Engineering, Chap. 62. 

Warren, Farm Management, pp. 388-401. 

U. S. Dept. Agri. Farmers' Bulletin, 1132. Washington, 1920. 



161 




LESSON 37 

Outdoor Theater 

HIS exercise will give the pupil an opportunity 
to learn something of the design and use of outdoor 
theaters. Such open-air auditoriums are made 
in a great variety of styles, in all sizes, and are 
used for innumerable purposes, such as giving 
plays, pageantry, music, religious meetings, pub- 
lic speaking, movies, vaudeville, etc., etc. 

Discussion 

The simplest outdoor theater is found where the boy scouts sit 
round in a circle while the scout master stands in the center to ad- 
dress them. From this point upward the idea may be elaborated 
to any extent, some of the notable examples being the college stadi- 
ums, like the Yale "Bowl," which has been used for music and 
pageantry as well as for great spectacles of football; the beautiful 
high school "Bowl" in Tacoma, Washington, and the famous 
"Greek" theater at the University of California. 

Outdoor meetings are very common in all parts of the country, 
but in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred these are held in improvised 
surroundings — a few planks laid across boxes under the trees with 
a bigger box to serve as a rostrum for the speaker. Now the proper 
procedure in landscape gardening is to provide comfortable and 
beautiful surroundings to meet the needs of these gatherings rather 
than to build some elaborate theater and afterward try to invent a 
use for it. Of course a theater once built, if it is suitable and ap- 
pealing, will create new demands. There will be more outdoor 
concerts, more open-air church services, more grange picnics, more 
neighborhood reunions. 

162 



OUTDOOR THEATER 



The following suggestions as to the design of outdoor theaters 
are condensed from the author's work on this subject.* 

Size: Generally speaking the outdoor theater ought to be 
large or small, one or the other. The football stadium has to be 
large enough to accommodate thousands of visitors; a theater for 
pageants must also be made on a large scale. But for small plays, 
for music and for public speaking the outdoor theater may easily 
be too large. For these latter requirements it should be as small. 




Outdoor Theater at Anoka, Minn. 



compact and intimate as possible. Rarely should it be designed 
to seat more than 500. If 200 auditors are well cared for it will 
be even better. 

Enclosure: Every outdoor theater ought to be fully enclosed, 
preferably by trees and shrubs or by hedges of greenery. Bound- 
aries of dressed and painted lumber or of stucco or brick can be made 
attractive if well designed and especially if well covered with vines. 
* Waugh, " Outdoor Theaters," Boston, 1917. 
163 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Orientation: It is best to have the main axis of the theater 
run approximately north and south with the stage at either end of 
this axis. 

Locations: Large theaters and football stadiums must be in 
the open and preferably on level land. Rarely, as at Tacoma, 
Washington, can advantage be taken of a hillside to make a thor- 
oughly satisfactory stadium. Small theaters should be made under 
trees in nearly all cases. "Natural amphitheaters" of which one 
often hears are really quite common. They can be found in almost 
every neighborhood, and they should be utilized wherever possible 
as sites for further elaboration. 

Seats: There has been a wild fashion in America for fitting all 
stadiums and outdoor theaters with cement seats. Now a cement 
seat is intolerable for purposes of sitting down. Wooden seats must 
always be built on top of the cement. This raises the question 
whether it is not much better, at least in small theaters, to build 
wooden seats in the first place. In some places chairs may be 
brought out when needed. In many instances temporary and move- 
able planks make the most practicable seats. 

The Stage: The stage should be as simple as possible, usually 
level; and not too large. It should be closed at the back and 
framed in at the two sides by trees, pillars, or by some similar means. 
Convenient exits and entrances should be found, and dressing rooms 
must be considered. 

Lighting: Electric lighting is the simplest method almost 
everywhere, but by no means the best, especially if the usual in- 
candescent bulbs are strung in sight of the spectators. If "flood 
lights" thrown from concealed sources can be installed the outdoor 
effect is better preserved. But incandescent light bulbs out of 
doors are a highly artificial anomaly and tend powerfully to destroy 
the very illusions which we are striving to create. Open blazing 
flambeaux, kerosene or gasolene torches, are much better. Good 
moonlight is best of all, at least for musical programs. 

164 



OUTDOOR THEATER 



REMOVABLE 
FLOWER. 



W A L K 




ANORA OPEN AIR. THEATRE 



FiQ. 87. Plak of Outdoor Theater in Anoka, Minn. 

Illustration 

The outdoor theater here illustrated was designed by Purcell 
and Elmslie, architects, of Minneapolis, Minn., and built at Anoka, 
Minn., in 1915. It is pictured and described in the book on "Out- 
door Theaters" already mentioned. 



165 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Problems 

The pupil should copy the drawing here used. The copy should 
be in ink at a scale of 1" = 10'. 

Next an original design should be made for a small outdoor 
theater. A suitable site should be chosen, and to this choice of site 
much study may well be given. Attention should next be given to 
the uses to which the finished theater may be devoted. When these 
purposes are clearly in view and all the physical conditions fully 
understood and a survey made of the ground, the design may be 
worked out. All details of grading, planting, stage, furnishings, 
seating, lighting, etc., should be fully developed. 

Readings 

"Open-air Theaters," Independent, 64 : 1362, June 11, 1908. 
"Beauty in Outdoor Drama," illus. Craftsman, 18 : 570, Aug., 1910. 
Mackaye, Outdoor Plays and Pageants, illus. Independent, 68 : 

1227, June 2, 1910. 
Row, Open-air Theaters in America. Harpers Weekly, illus., Oct. 

4, 1913. 
Stoll, Where Theaters are Out-of-Doors, illus. Tech. World., 20 : 403, 

Nov. 1913. 
"Theaters Roofed by the Stars," illus. Lit. Digest, 47 : 20, July 5, 

1913. 
Hubbard, Italian Garden Theaters, Landscape Architecture, 4 : 53, 

1914. 
"Garden Theaters," illus. Country Life Am., 27 : 43, 1915. 
Waugh, Some Garden Theaters, illus. Architectural Review, 4 : 161, 

Sept., 1916. 
Waugh, Outdoor Theaters, illus., pp. 151, Boston, 1917. 



166 




LESSON 38 

Church Grounds 

HIS exercise presents another type problem in 
landscape gardening as applied to civic improve- 
ment. The student should get some practice in 
drafting from this lesson, but his attention should 
be turned chiefly to the principles on which an 
existing design has been revised. 

Illustration 

The drawing herewith presented shows a design for the improve- 
ment of existing church grounds. The present layout may be seen 
in the paced survey shown on page 32, and that survey must be 
consulted in the study of the present lesson. In the existing layout 
two serious defects appear (1) the entrance is irregular, blocked, 
"blind;" (2) the plantings are scattered, miscellaneous and aimless. 

The front door of the church is not now visible from the street, 
but is hidden behind high and dense shrubbery, and the approaches 
are crooked, unsymmetrical and ugly. A stranger would hardly 
find his way into this church without a guide, whereas the church 
would like to appear particularly inviting. 

In the revised plan the front porch and door have been opened 
to full view. The large (existing) elm in the center is high-branched 
and does not in the least obscure this view. 

A main feature of the new plan is a large paved concourse in 
front of the porch. Seats are set along the margins of this concourse. 
The purpose of this feature is to invite everyone to linger for a few 
sociable moments with friends either entering or especially on leaving 
church. 

The broad plaza and broad, direct walks are expected to open 

167 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




cj^Jo/^ xcue^:fD 



168 



CHURCH GROUNDS 



the way widely to the church; to make it easy for strangers to find 
their way in. 

The plantings about the church yard have been grouped and 
simplified. The con- 
course is supported on 
the sides with masses 
of dense, neat shrubbery, 
including deciduous and 
evergreen species. 

Problems 

This plan should 
first be redrawn on a 
scale of 1" = 20'. This 
drawing should be in 
ink, or may be rendered 
in water color. 

The student should 
then make a paced 
survey of some neigh- 
boring church grounds, 
and on the basis of such 
survey should prepare a 
plan of improvement. 
This plan should be as 
simple and direct as 
possible. It should be drawn in ink at a scale of 1" = 20'. 

The several members of a class should generally cover several 
church yards in these studies. The resulting improvement plans 
should be brought together for comparison and criticism. 




CinucH ("'.uorN-DS — Existing Entrance 



169 




LESSON 39 

Railroad Station Grounds 

HE purpose of this lesson is to exhibit the prob- 
lems which arise in the layout of the grounds 
about the average rural railroad station and to 
present some of the considerations upon which 
a solution of these problems may be based. 

Discussion 

The average rural railway station grounds comprise always 
the following units: 

(1) Tracks 

(2) Sidings 

(3) Station buildings 

(4) Platforms 

(5) Vehicle approaches 

(6) Foot approaches 

(7) TrafTic space 

To these may be added in special cases various other items such 
as 

(8) Separate freight station 

(9) Water tank 

(10) Coal bunkers 

(11) Cattle yards 

Every satisfactory station grounds also has some relief of trees 
and shrubs, grass or parkings. In securing a satisfactory effect, 
from the standpoint of civic art, these ornamental features are 
highly important 

170 



RAILROAD STATION GROUNDS 

Structural Design 

It is evident that these various units can be arranged in an in- 
finite variety of combinations. Obviously the simplest, most 
straightforward, most logical arrangement is to be desired. 




Fig. 90. Well-Theated Railroad Station Grounds 

It seems clear from an examination of hundreds of examples 
that no general type of plan exists, at least in the eastern states. 
It might have been expected that the railroads would have stand- 
ardized the plans of their rural station grounds. It seems that 
none of the eastern railroads has done anything of this sort, but by 
no means clear that such a standardization of station grounds plans 
would not be preferable to the hap-hazard developments of the 
past. It would seem, however, to the average landscape architect 
that still better results could be secured by a careful study of each 
case on its own merits. Such study would begin with a consider- 
ation of local geography, specifically with the problem of adjusting 

171 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



the station grounds to the adjoining streets in such a way as to make 
the station most readily accessible from business districts, resi- 
dence sections, and surrounding; farming country. 




Fig. 91. ."^imi-lk Layoft ok U.\ilro.\d St.\tion Grounds 

Next there should be considered questions of local topography 
in order that the whole design may be properly fitted to the land. 

There would then bo considered the architectural character of 
the station building. This should be simple, and the coloring should 
bo in a (|uiot neutral tttne. 

Lastly, but bv no means least, should be considered the orna- 



RAILROAD STATION GROUNDS 

mental treatment of the grounds. The importance of these grounds 
is readily conceded when we consider the civic character of the 
railway station as a principal community entrance. The railway 
station, being the front door to the neighborhood, should have the 
same artistic qualities as the front door of a public building or private 
residence. Briefly stated these requirements are as follows: 

(!) Practicable traffic connections 

(2) Orderly arrangement 

(3) Cleanliness 
(1) Dignity 
(5) Ilospilality 

In short, the station grounds are to be made inviting. To 
give them the required dignity and attractiveness some use of trees 
and grass is to be strongly urged. Any elaborate gardening with 
tender herbaceous stock is generally inappropriate at a rural rail- 
way station where practically no funds are available for mainten- 
ance. It may be doubted whether plantings of shrubbery are 
desirable unless some definite provision can be made for up-keep. 

In general the great need in the design of rural station grounds 
if for an orderly and logical arrangement of the various units. 

Illustrations 

The examples here reproduced are drawn from paced surveys 
of existing railway grounds. 

Prol)kms 

The i)upil sh(juld redraw one of these plans in ink at a scale of 
1" = 40'. This will give opportunity for a more careful consider- 
ation of the problems involved. 

Next the pupil should make a paced survey and map of some 
rural or suburban station grounds somewhere in his own neighbor- 
hood. If there be a class of several memljers as many different 
grounds should be surveyed as can be reached. A comparison of the 

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TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




RAILROAD STATION GROUNDS 

way in which problems have been met in different places should 
prove interesting and instructive, and for that purpose the surveys 
collected by the members of the class should be brought together 
for exhibition and discussion. 

Next the pupil should undertake the revision and improvement 
of plan for some existing station grounds where he is personally 
acquainted with conditions. 

Lastly, if time permits, the pupil should attempt an ideal lay- 
out such as might be adopted as a standard by a railway company. 



177 




LESSON 40 

CouRT-HousE Square 

HE purpose of this lesson is to indicate the most 
effective hnes of development in a court-house 
square, a civic feature of large importance in 
county seat towns, especially in the south and 
middle west. 

Discussion 

The court-house square usually occupies a central position in 
the town, and the court-house itself is apt to be the largest and most 
important public building. The court-house square thus becomes 
the focus of civic interest — a genuine civic center. 

The grounds in the court-house square will necessarily be rela- 
tively small. This results primarily from the heavy pressure of 
commercial interests on the four sides of the square, since as a 
rule the most valuable business locations are those immediately 
fronting upon the court-house. The actual and apparent size of 
the grounds are still further diminished by the large mass of the 
court-house building. 

It sometimes happens also that other buildings are put upon the 
court-house square, such as a jail or a library. Such an arrange- 
ment must always be considered objectionable. Such other build- 
ings break up the ground and detract from the dignity of the central 
court-house. 

On account of the smallness of the grounds and the predom- 
inance of straight lines in the vicinity, a definitely formal treatment 
of the open spaces is strongly suggested. Good landscape gardening 
would undoubtedly lead in this direction. The public taste for a 
more natural style is so strong however, and the popular ignorance 

178 



COURT-HOUSE SQUARE 



of the formal style so great, that the prevaihng tendency is strongly 
established toward a park-like treatment. This park-like treat- 
ment in its best form involves the following features: 

1. Rather extensive plantings of hardy native deciduous shade 
trees. These should be placed around the borders of the lot, the 
spaces in the center and about the building being left free of trees. 

2. Development of good lawn areas. Such lawns can be es- 
tablished only where the ground is free of trees. 

3. Foundation plantings of hardy shrubbery and evergreens 
about the building. 

4. The placing of attractive lawn benches at appropriate 
points, especially along the marginal sidewalk under the shade 
of trees and facing the walk. 

5. The exclusion from the grounds of trite and silly "orna- 
mental features," such as cast-iron statuary, memorial statues of 
local heroes, antiquated artillery, unnecessary fountains, pattern 
flower beds, and all similar rubbish so dear to the heart of the av- 
erage court-house janitor, the sheriff and the board of county com- 
missioners. 

6. Walks should be direct from the court-house entrances to 
the principal traffic points. These principal traffic points are nearly 
always at the corners of the square, so that a system of diagonal 
walks is almost necessary. 

Illustration 

The example here reproduced is a typical court-house square 
from Marshalltown, Marshall County, Iowa, and is drawn from a 
survey by Professor Frank H. Culley, landscape architect. 

Problem 

If the student has time he should first redraw the plan of the 
Marshalltown court-house square as here shown. 

The next step must be to survey the nearest court-house square 
and present the findings in the form of a drawing similar to that 

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TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



f^m 







COURJ HOUSE SQUARE MAR5HALLTOWN lA 

FRANK H CULLEY LANDSCAPE ARiZHT FEB 1916 



Fig. 93. Typical Court-house Square 
ISO 



COURT-HOUSE SQUARE 



shown in Figure 93. The layout thus discovered should be criti- 
cized in detail as to location of walks, character of plantings, po- 
sition of benches, condition of lawn, and all other features. Such 
criticism should be constructive, showing how better results could 
be achieved. 

Finally the student should prepare an improvement plan, prefer- 
ably based upon the survey already made, showing how an ideal 
court-house square should be developed under the circumstances 
thus made known. 

Questions 

1. When a court-house and grounds are outgrown how can 
extensions or enlargements be made? 

2. How might this exigency be provided for if it were foreseen 
from the beginning? 



181 




LESSON 41 

Town Common 

HE object of this lesson is to study the town 
common, a civic feature of first importance in 
New England villages. It is desirable to know 
something of its history and uses in order that 
appropriate plans may be made for its present 
improvement. We should also have in mind the 
possible development of the same idea, perhaps 

with some modifications, in other parts of the country and in new 

communities now building. 

General Discussion* 

One of the most pleasing features of the New England village 
is the town common. It is also one of the most characteristic, for 
while there are "court-house squares" and "parks" in most of the 
southern and mid- western towns, these are physically and politically 
very different from the New England town common. 

Public interest in the common may be safely reckoned on in 
every New England town. As the village is the center of com- 
mercial and social intercourse, so the common is the center of civic 
interest. \'illage improvement nearly always begins with the towD 
common. 

Historical Notes 

Existing town commons are mostly rather old — at least not 
of recent origin. The purposes for which they were set aside have 

* This discussion is revised from a bulletin by the Author, "The Town 
Common," Massachusetts Agricultural College, Extension Bulletin 7, June, 
1916. 

182 



TOWN COMMON 



now generally disappeared, and may be entirely forgotten. In 
a number of instances they were simply common pasture lands on 
which livestock could be kept, and especially on which the live- 
stock might be assembled at night so that they would not be run 
ofY by the Indians. The idea of providing a central parcel of ground 
for such common use was undoubtedly the primary purpose in a 
large number of cases. 

A little later came the use of the common as a military drill 
ground. Military service was practically universal and military 
practice frequent. On training days the common was the center 
of animated doings. Add a lot of gay flirtation and hard drinking 
to the military manoeuvres and the picture gains in truth and com- 
pleteness. This use of the town common diminished rapidly after 
1812, but was revived again in some places in 1861. 

Historically the next use to which town commons was generally 
given was the local fair or cattle show. In a very few instances 
the annual fair still uses the common, though under increasing 
protest. 

At the present time public sentiment has quite other ideals as 
to the purpose of the common, though these ideals are seldom as 
clearly formulated as might be desired. The common is understood 
to be a sort of sacred ground, though nobody may be able to tell 
why nor for just what uses it is reserved. 

First of all the modern town common is a civic beauty spot. 
Nothing adds charm, dignity, and distinction to the New England 
town more emphatically than a good, well-kept common. While 
many persons affect an attitude of indifference to a mere question 
of looks, all good citizens really have a very substantial pride in 
such matters. Everybody likes to have his home town appear to 
good advantage in the eyes of visitors, and indeed most men and 
women find for themselves a real personal satisfaction in the at- 
tractiveness of their home surroundings. 

The common has become, in a majority of towns, a modern 
civic center. The principal civic buildings, such as the town hall, 

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TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

the popular churches, the library, the school, the grange hall, the 
post office and the stores, front upon it. This grouping of public 
and semi-public buildings within a single view and fronted by an 
open space of grass and trees is precisely the arrangement best cal- 
culated to give the finest possible elTect. At the same time it con- 
tributes best to practical convenience. 

The practical purpose of the town common in present times is, 
therefore, to beautify and dignify the civic center, as well as to 
make it more convenient. As far as practicable all the important 
public buildings should face on this open space. In a few (mostly 
quite rural) towns the common is now used as a public playground. 
It may even support a full-sized baseball diamond. While it is 
certainly better to permit play on the town common rather than 
to make no provision whatever for it, this is quite as certainly not 
the best arrangement, either for the playground or for the common. 

Typical Forms 

Looking over any considerable number of town commons we 
see that they have developed chielly in three principal forms. The 
first and most frecjuent is the triangular type, formed between the 
branches of two converging roads. The second is the quadrangular 
type, with more or less definite right angles, formed between four 
intersecting streets. The third is constituted of a wide, long street, 
having rather indefinite termini. The famous streets of Old Hadley 
and Northfield, Mass., are good examples of the last-named type, 
which is more frequent than is generally supposed. 

These old commons vary considerably in size, running from 
one-quarter acre up to eight or ten acres. The triangular ones are 
usually the smaller. Two to four acres may be considered typical 
and satisfactory. Less than two acres is inadequate, — more than 
four is seldom put to effective use. 



184 



TOWN COMMON 



Modern Treatment 

Any appropriate treatment of the town common must develop 
from its present purpose and modern uses. If it is to be used for 
cattle shows or military' drills there will be little difficulty in model- 
ing the common to meet these requirements. If, however, the much 
more usual purpose prevails of keeping the common as a civic center 
for the sake of the beauty and dignity which it may add to the 
community, a different method of treatment is desirable. This 
treatment for what must be considered the typical town common 
may be l^ricfly stated as follows: 

1. Buildings of every sort must be kept off the common. There 
is a constant demand, especially where a large common exists, for 
the location of some [)ublic building within the open space. First 
it is a high school, then it is a library, or it may be a town hall or 
even a post office, which is seeking a location. Everybody can see 
that the proposed l)uilding would look well on the town common, 
while few people stop to think that, after the erection of one or two 
such buildings, there is no common left. The only way to have both 
the common and the buildings is to place the buildings somewhere 
else. The ideal location for good public structures is facing the 
common — never upon il. This rule is positive and admits of no 
exceptions, unless it be in those very rare instances where a town has 
too large a common. 

2. All other structures should be kept off the common. There 
are two popular infractions of this rule to which a special word 
should be given. The first is the erection of a band-stand upon 
the common. Hundreds of towns have adopted this plan, but in 
every case the effect is to detract from the openness and dignity of 
the grounds. In a large majority of cases the band-stand is a shabby 
and undignified structure in itself, — sometimes an ugly derelict. 
Another fact, too, should have considerable force, viz., that the 
typical band-stand is about the poorest possible contrivance from 
which to deliver a band concert. A stand suitable for band con- 

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TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 








\ftvr 








/7?<3y /, /f;t^7 



Ayf.tVdu^^ 



Fig. 94. A Large Town Common of the Rectangular Type 

certs and for public speaking should be quite differently designed; 
and instead of being located in the center of the common, should 
be placed on its margin, at one angle, or in some other locality 
altogether. 

186 



TOWN COMMON 



The other popular error has been to place the soldiers monument 
in the center of the common. The fact that our New England 
soldiers' monuments exhibit, in general, a very low average of 
artistic taste is somewhat beside the point, though it aggravates 
the bad effect of misplacement. The effect is so unquestionably 
bad that the time will come when many of these monuments will 
be removed to other locations and, let us hope, will be replaced with 
works better typifying the wholesome sentiments which prompted 
the present crop of inadequate sculpture. The tendency to use the 
town common as an appendix to the cemetery and to place com- 
memorative monuments upon it has been somewhat revived in 
present times as communities are seeking to build war memorials 
again for the soldiers of the world war. This makes it all the more 
necessary to emphasize the undesirability of the practice. 

3. The proper location for groups of statuary and similar 
monuments is not in the center of open spaces but in front of or 
connected with public buildings. Occasionally a large monument 
may be placed at the end of a street. Some very good sites for large 
and dignified monuments exist at the exigent angles of triangular 
town commons where they might face directly down an important 
road and where they might usually be given a background of trees 
and shrubbery. 

Other structures of a more trivial nature are sometimes placed 
on the common, but no fair justification of their presence there 
can possibly be offered. Very simple tablets commemorating im- 
portant historic events may be a possible exception, though these 
should usually be located at the outer angles of the common. At- 
tractive guide posts, street lamps, and the customary watering 
troughs should be placed in the same way. 

Necessary Furniture 

A special word may be said about seats. On a great many 
commons seats are in genuine demand. Local circumstances some- 
times make it inexpedient to encourage this demand and to supply 

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TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

seats upon the common, but as a general rule such provision seems 
desirable. When seats are furnished they should be of good design, 
very substantially constructed and usually fixed in place. Seats 
should be located beside walks and not in the center of grass areas. 

Walks: Another practical problem arises in providing walks 
across the common. Many instances are known where ragged, inter- 
secting or meandering walks across a town common cut up the 
spaces, spoil the grass and seriously injure the whole effect. About 
all that can be done, however, recognizing the practical necessity 
of walks, is to reduce them to the smallest number, locate them on 
direct lines where the travel is certain to go — walk or no walk ^ 
and to construct them of good, clean, inconspicuous materials. 
They can then be kept tidy, at least. Any supposedly ornamental 
serpentine treatment of the walks on the common is pretty sure to 
become ridiculous. 

Grass and Trees: Careful study of the problem reduces the 
improvement of the town common to a matter of good lawn and good 
trees. Clean, open spaces of well-graded, well-mowed and well- 
kept lawn shaded by large and dignified deciduous trees certainly 
give the desired effect in ninety cases out of one hundred. Im- 
provement should begin on many commons with a regrading and 
reseeding of the lawns. Existing lawns on town commons suffer, 
in many cases, from lack of water and fertilizer. Good feeding and 
a reasonable water supply are necessary to the development of a 
lawn anywhere. The practical methods of improving grass lands 
and lawns need not be taken up here. 

The repair of injured trees, the removal of poor or crowded 
specimens, and the scientific preservation of those remaining should 
be the next undertaking. In certain places the planting of young 
trees is to be strongly recommended, especially where, in recent 
years, gypsy and brown-tail moths, the elm-leaf beetle, leaky gas 
mains or damaging electric wires have decimated the ranks of 
earlier plantings. 

As a rule, subject to only a few exceptions, the native elm and 

188 



TOWN COMMON 



the maple are the best trees for use on all town commons. Also 
it is better to use only one of these species on any given tract, as a 
mixture of species never gives as clean, unified, and dignified a 
result. Evergreen trees of any kind should be used very rarely. 
While plantings should by preference be given a somewhat formal 
arrangement, they should be restricted mainly to the borders and 
corners of the area, leaving the center open. 

Plantings of shrubbery on commons are usually unfortunate. 
They catch blowing newspapers and other waste; they are as apt 
to appear untidy as to enhance the ornamental effect; they may ob- 
struct the view seriously, especially at angles where automobile 
traffic centers; they are very seldom given the care necessary to 
keep them in good conditions. 

Flower beds of any kind are even less admissible in schemes for 
improving the common. Only in the most exceptional cases can 
they be really successful. 

New Commons 

Practically all of our New England town commons were estab- 
lished years ago for purposes which no longer exist, yet it seems a 
fair surmise that all these open spaces are more highly prized today 
than when they were first set aside. It is a fair question then 
whether a patriotic and far-sighted view would not demand of us 
that we in this generation make some similar provision for the 
future. Our towns and villages are thriving. Many of them are 
growing rapidly. New villages and neighborhood centers are form- 
ing. We ought to do for them at least as much as our Indian- 
harassed forefathers did for us. The opening of new common 
spaces is a question to be most seriously considered in a number of 
communities. Very careful preliminary studies will obviously be 
necessary in any project of this sort. 



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TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




CD UU CJUtUUJ O G SJXJJXTC 



Fl 



kJ a / m o u i /^ , yj a s s . 



JTay ./^za 



y. >i a/au^^ 



Flo. 95. Small Town Common, Trianqulak Type 



190 



TOWN COMMON 



Problems 

One or more of the following problems should be worked out 
by every pupil. 

1. Several plans of existing town commons are printed here- 
with. These may be drawn out to suitable scale and developed in 
any way the teacher may desire. These are excellent subjects for 
water-color rendering. 

2. If the pupils find themselves in New England or elsewhere 
where any town commons exist, the most valuable exercise is cer- 
tainly to make a study of local examples. One or several commons 
should be surveyed and mapped. 

3. In some parts of the country where commons of the New 
England type are not to be found there are other open spaces of 
somewhat analogous character in public ownership, and these should 
be given similar study. 

4. On the basis of such surveys and detailed personal examin- 
ation a new set of plans may be drawn showing possible alterations 
and improvements. 

5. Pupils may also find it an instructive exercise to work out a 
theoretical design of an ideal town common, either on some known 
tract of land, or merely on paper. 

6. In those cases (mainly outside of New England) where it is 
necessary to study something not quite the same as a town common 
very careful thought should be given to the purposes for which the 
space was set aside, to its present uses and to its best future. These 
considerations should be reduced to writing and fully verified. They 
may then form the basis for an intelligent landscape gardening treat- 
ment of the area. 

Questions 

1. Why did not the New England settlers moving westward 
across New York, Ohio, Michigan, etc., carry with them the feature 
of the town common? 

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TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

2. Why has this feature not been adopted by other American 
communities, even when the citizens were not of New England 
origin? 

3. Are there similar village commons in European communities? 



192 




LESSON 42 

Small Town Squahe 

HIS lesson is intended to give an opportunity 
for the study of small town parks of the type 
very commonly found in America, especially in 
the smaller towns and cities of the middle west. 
The typical park of this character consists of a 
square bounded by rectangular streets. Front- 
ing upon this lot may be either business houses 
or residences, or both. These spaces which are almost universally 
called parks should be given the less ambitious and more accurate 
name of squares. 

Discussion 

During the development of the checker-board towns and cities 
of the middle west single or double squares were rather frequently 
set aside as parks. It was sometimes expected that these spaces 
should be occupied by public buildings. In other instances it was 
the obvious intention that they should be planted with trees and 
maintained for the adornment of the city. 

Although the purposes to which such land might be put were 
undoubtedly vague in the minds of the creators, the reservation of 
such open spaces was exceedingly fortunate. No city could be found 
where such reservations are now considered too many or too large. 
On the other hand a great many towns could be found, and more 
especially larger cities, where more frequent breaks of this sort are 
now known to be highly desirable. 

The first point to be understood, therefore, is that all these 
spaces should now be kept in public ownership, and should be kept 
open and free from buildings at whatever cost. A few of these 

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squares have been made into public playgrounds. While this 
move is not seriously objectionable, and while the great demand for 
playgrounds undoubtedly justifies such appropriations of land in 
many instances, it may be said that playgrounds should be larger 
and should ideally be located elsewhere, these simple open squares 
being reserved as breathing and resting spaces. They may also be 
frequently used for public gatherings, especially for outdoor dra- 
matics, pageantry and music. 




Fig. 96. Forsyth Park, Savannah — An Excellent Interior City Square 

Landscape Treatment 

From the standpoint of landscape gardening these city squares 
present a very puzzling problem. In most cases heavy traffic lines 
are necessary running diagonally across the squares, and some- 

194 



SMALL TOWN SQUARE 



times diametrically. These traffic lines break up the spaces in such 
a way as to make effective landscape treatment exceedingly difficult. 
Sometimes a band-stand, pavilion or theater stage may be erected 
at the center of the square and surrounded by a suitable plaza in 
such a manner as to make a genuine focus of design and still not 
interfere with ordinary cross-traffic. In about an equal number of 
cases it will be found best to place any outdoor theater or similar 
feature in one of the quadrants between the walks. 

In general buildings of all kinds are to be avoided. The larger 
they are the more objectionable. 

These public squares are often chosen as sites for public me- 
morials — monuments and statuary. There seems to be a great deal 
of doubt as to where these should be placed. It may be said how- 
ever with confidence that a very large monument may sometimes 
be effectively placed in the center of such a square, but that smaller 
monuments should always be placed at the angles or at the entrance 
of a side street. For instance in the plan shown, Figure 97, a small 
commemorative monument or statuary group could be effectively 
placed in the small plaza immediately fronting upon the side street 
entrance at the west or in the similar place at the east side. In 
no case should a monument or group of any sort be placed midway 
along one side of such a square or in the middle of one of the quad- 
rants. 

A much too common custom consists in placing upon these 
squares a great variety of "ornamental" junk, such as pools, foun- 
tains, rockeries, etc. All such features should be rigidly excluded. 
The small city square is no place for any sort of pool or lake unless 
the whole square is converted into a playground, when a wading 
pool or swimming pool may have its place. 

Plantings of hardy deciduous trees are desirable on nearly all 
of the open spaces. The primary tree planting should be in straight 
rows along the street margins and should correspond with the reg- 
ular street plantings of the vicinity. If an open plaza is designed for 
the center of the square the next tree planting should be immediately 

195 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

about this plaza in such a manner as to give it ample shade. It is 
doubtful whether groupings of trees can be made eflective in other 
parts of the square, and it is usually best to leave the remaining 
spaces open for grass. 

The establishment of good grass lawns is the next step to be 
considered. The ground of course must be carefully graded in order 
that such lawns may be kept mowed. 

Flower beds should never be used on these spaces unless a very 
high degree of maintenance can be assured by a well-organized and 
well-managed park department. Plantings of shrubbery are rarely 
satisfactory in such localities unless they have the same thorough- 
going attention. 

Suitable seats should be provided under the shade of the larger 
trees, both along the marginal sidewalks and about the central plaza. 

Illustration 

Herewith is presented a plan of a typical city square in Minne- 
apolis, Minn. The present design, made by Mr. Theodore Wirth, 
Superintendent of Parks, is a radical simplification and improvement 
of a previous elaborate layout. 

Problems 

The pupil should copy this design at a scale of 1" = 40'. The 
copy may be made in pencil and rendered in crayon, or may be made 
in ink. 

The pupil should now make an exhaustive examination of all 
the open squares anywhere within his reach. He should make a 
full record of their size, character of the surface, present use, plant- 
ings and furnishings. He should determine whether they are put 
to the best uses or not and whether additional spaces of this kind 
can be secured in any way. 

The student should next make a detailed survey of some par- 

196 



SMALL TOWN SQUARE 



ticular public square and on the basis of such survey should prepare 
a full improvement plan. 

The plans of different students in a class, made for the same or 




^ /c^5i3:i^t3Er3t356^t^^^^^^^ ^ 




nhR-s 



MWRPHY 5QUARE » MINNEAPOLIS • riJNN. 
rir. Th«o Wirtb, Suptrintcodent of ParKs 



Fig. 97. Treatment of City Square in Minn^eapolis 



several public squares, preferably all at the same scale, should then 
be put on joint exhibition. Such an exhibition will give an op- 
portunity for a comparison of the work done by different students; 

197 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

but what is more valuable it will offer an opportunity for general 
discussion and criticism, an opportunity which should be improved 
to the utmost. 

Readings 

C. M. Robinson, Modern Civic Art, Chap. XV. 
O. G. SiMONDS, Landscape Gardening, p. 253. 



198 



LESSON 43 



Playground 

ME problem here presented for solution is that of 
the small playground in a crowded city. This 
involves the preparation of a very compact de- 
sign in which every inch of ground is used to its 
'KW^VJ^^'^))") 'J'-^nost capacity. As in all other problems in 
^v— J^t^ f ^ ^ i^o landscape architecture the student should give 
first attention to the practical requirements of 
the problem; secondly he should study the topography and all 
natural features; thirdly he should provide a solution which meets 
the practical requirements under the physical conditions existing 
and with a maximum of good order and beauty. 




Illustration 

The plan here reproduced is from a design by Olmsted Brothers, 
landscape architects, for the Hardin Square playground in Chicago, 
111. The plan was executed several years ago. 




Fig. 98. Plan of Playground, Hardin Square, CHicAf;o. De.sign by Olmsted Brothers 

199 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



Observation 

The playground occupies a small rectangular space covering 
one-half a city block. The land is level and featureless. Taking 
these facts in connection with the requirement that all space be 
used to the maximum cfiiciency, the designer is practically forced 
to employ a rectangular subdivision of parts and a design made up 
wholly of straight lines. The design is almost necessarily sym- 
metrical. 




Fig. 99. Perspective Sketch of Playground 

In the center is a good sized field-house, used as a neighborhood 
center, with two wings used as a gymnasia for men and women. 
Adjoining these gj^mnasium rooms are outdoor gymnasia for men 
and women, each one enclosed. In front of the building is a large 
play field, used for free play and for baseball or football. In one 
corner is a swimming pool, in the opposite corner a wading pool and 
playground for small children. Rows of trees placed on structural 
lines supply grateful shade and a background of foliage. Between 
these trees hedge-like ])orders of shrubbery are developed. The 
whole plan is exceedingly simple, practical and economical. 

Problems 

The pupils should visit all playgrounds within reach, make 
paced surveys and draw out plans showing existing conditions. 

200 



PLA YGROUND 




Fig. 100. Typical City Playfield, Minneapolis 



It will be desirable in this as in other problems to copy the 
design here shown. In the present lesson a new feature of presen- 
tation is introduced in the form of a simple perspective. It is de- 
sirable for the student to redraw this perspective and to develop 

201 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

other perspectives of a similar sort from other plans on which he 
may be at work. 

Finally the pupil should himself undertake the design of one or 
more playgrounds. Preferably these designs should be based upon 
existing conditions known to the pupil. First a careful survey should 
be made of the property, a full examination of the requirements, 
and the design should be worked out in view of these requirements 
on the basis of the existing conditions as shown in the survey. 

Readings 

Mero, American Playgrounds, New York, 1909. 

"The Playground," Monthly Magazine, Cooperstown, N. Y. 



202 




LESSON 44 

County Fair Grounds 

^N Ihis lesson the pupil is asked to consider a 
somewhat conaplicated and difficult problem in 
landscape gardening, that is, the design of a mod- 
ern county fair grounds. A problem like this 
l)elongs naturally to the most thoroughly equipped 
professional landscape architect, not to the stu- 
dent in an elementary course. It is not expected 
that the average user of this book will be taught how to manage 
work of this magnitude, but he can at least reach an intelligent ap- 
preciation of the problems involved. If the student gains from this 
lesson some understanding of the kind of work undertaken by the 
professional landscape architect, the main purpose of the exercise 
will have been fulfilled. 

Illustration 

The example here cited is the plan for the Clay County, Iowa, 
Fair Grounds. The design is by Mr. Francis Asbury Robinson, of 
the firm of Pearse, Sprague & Robinson, Des Moines. The layout 
of this fair can be easily understood from the two drawings, Figures 
101 and 102. 

Principles of Design 

This fair grounds plan has been fully expounded by Mr. Robin- 
son and the following statement of "The Essentials of a Successful 
Layout" is taken from his article. 

"In considering the requirements for success, while too great 
emphasis cannot be put on the educational elements of a fair, it 
must be remembered, nevertheless, that if the treasury cannot show 

203 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 







Gfiovt STR-Eer 






Fig. 101. Modern County Fair Grounds in Iowa 



a favorable balance the supporters will not be satisfied. It is strictly 
a business venture and must show a profit, or at least make expenses, 
in order to receive the necessary annual support. This consider- 
ation means, therefore, provision for additional income over mere 
gate receipts, or attractions aside from those strictly educational, to 

204 



COUNTY FAIR GROUNDS 



swell these receipts. The race-track, side-shows, concessions for sale 
of novelties, drinks, and eatables have been the usual recourse and 
will always be the source of greatest income. 

"The task of the designer is to so arrange and coordinate these 
various features that they will not only present the most attractive 
appearance and be of easiest access, but also bring the greatest 
financial return by placing the revenue-producing attractions in the 
most advantageous positions. 

"Consideration must also be given to the varying and diverse 
interest and needs of both men and women. Live stock, crops, farm 
buildings and machinery are of greatest interest to the men, while 
poultry, fruits, vegetables, fancy work and canning make their 
appeal to the women. It is possible, therefore, to separate the 
exhibits into two distinct divisions, placing the women's features 
nearest and the men's farthest away from the entrances. A dis- 
tinct woman's building should be provided, with rest room and day 
nursery, and with fenced playground adjacent. In this building 
provision should be made for the exhibition of laces, fancy work and 
other objects of particular interest to women. Here, also, light re- 
freshments might be served. In close proximity to this building a 
floral hall should be located for the display of vegetables and small 
fruit with which women are intimately concerned. If possible, the 
poultry and sheep barns should not be far distant, as these contain 
the stock most interesting of all to women. 

"In a central position, easily reached from all the grounds, a 
dining-hall should be erected. This may be made one of the most 
profitable buildings on the grounds if properly managed. The 
centrahzation of eating facilities is important and always proves 
one of the most successful features. 

"For the proper facilitation of the business of the fair an ad- 
ministration building is an important unit. This should be near the 
main entrance and the direct line of traffic, so that it may be easily 
reached by all visitors with a minimum of confusion. This building 

205 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

may bo of quUc permanent construction, so that winter meetings 
may be held here in connection with auctions or sales. 

"The main feature of the slock barns should be a judi^'ing pa- 
vilion for all-year display and sale of stock. Here may be kepi Ihe 
pennanenl books of Ihe various slock associations, l()<«ellier wilh 




■■>'>^^:- 







Fio. 102. Aeroplanh View, Clay County Fair Ghdini 



auclion and sales records. This l)uilding should be centrally lo- 
cated in relation to the barns, as they are all subsidiary to it. and 
the entire group should be placed at a point quite remote from the 
main entrances, because of unpleasant odors and on account of the 
desire of interested visitors to get away from the crowd when view- 
ing slock. 

"If possible, the machinery hall should be located in a position 
between the women's building and the stock l)arns, for the exhibits 
here are interesting to both sexes - from electric washing machines 
to automatic milkers. In the rear of or near the machinery build- 
ing there should be an open field for the display of large farm ma- 
chinery, harvesters, binders, elevators, tractors and the like, where 
there is ample room for demonstration purposes. 

200 



COUNTY FAIR GROUNDS 



"The principal consideration in the location of the amusement 
sections is that they be permanent and so distributed that the 
maximum number of people will have to pass each attraction with 
minimum congestion. The amphitheater and race track should if 
possible be on one of the main avenues leading from the entrance, 
so that the great crowds may readily find them. For orientation, 
north is preferable and east permissible, in order that the sun may 
not shine in the spectators' eyes, and the long axis of the track should 
be east-and-west, so that the finish may be toward the east and 
avoid the blinding sun in the afternoon, when the majority of races 
are held. The size of the track depends much on the desires of the 
community, but the tendency in modern construction is towards 
the one-mile track, which can be utilized for horse-racing as well 
as automobiles. This gives a distinction over the old type, although 
the half-mile track is more easily seen by the crowd and requires 
greater skill in driving, owing to the increased number of turns. 
Much opposition has been made by turfmen to the use of the track 
for automobile races, but experience is proving that it requires not 
a great deal of maintenance to have a dual-purpose track, and the 
revenue is of course much greater. 

"In designing the ground plan of a fair the traffic problem 
becomes the major consideration, after building provision, owing to 
the ever-increasing number of automobiles. In fact, autos are the 
making of county fairs. For ease of handling and as a safety pre- 
caution, complete separation of vehicular and pedestrian traffic is 
strongly urged. Separate entrances on different sides of the grounds 
should be provided, if possible, and individual parking booths should 
be created to care for every machine. The exits should be apart 
from the entrances, so that a one-way traffic ruling may be enforced. 
Only thus can congestion be avoided during all times in the day. 

"While congestion should be avoided on the main thorough- 
fares for pedestrian traffic, still there is a point in keeping the crowd 
from scattering over so large a territory that the effect of size is 
lost. Nothing is better advertising than crowded grounds. Too 

207 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

much emphasis cannot be laid on this feature of the design. To 
properly arrange thoroughfares to take advantage of this psychol- 
ogical effect and still permit easy and free movement is the designer's 
problem." 

Study 

Pupils should first give careful study to the foregoing "prin- 
ciples of design" as enunciated by Mr. Robinson, and should ex- 
amine the plan of the Clay County Fair Grounds in detail to see how 
each of these principles has been worked out. The class should 
then go over the plan together, taking up each item, as location of 
race-track, location of live-stock arena, provision for concessions, 
deahng with automobiles, etc., discussing and criticizing all these 
points. 

If the class can now visit a fair grounds they should attend in a 
body accompanied by the teacher; and though a visit while the 
fair is in session would be illuminating and much worth while, the 
final examination for study should be made when the grounds are 
not in actual use. At this time the layout should be studied in the 
manner already recommended, item by item, and all points criti- 
cized in the light of the principles of landscape architecture thus far 
developed. Such questions as the following should be asked and 
answered : 

Are the grounds favorably located? 

Is the land topographically suited to its uses? 

Are the grounds large enough? 

Are the grounds clearly and properly subdivided and appor- 
tioned for the desired uses? 

Is the entrance in the right place? 

Is the entrance area well designed? 

Are the buildings properly designed and well suited to their 
several uses? 

Are the buildings most advantageously placed? Are they 
grouped effectively? 

208 



COUNTY FAIR GROUNDS 



Is the provision for traffic circulation, both pedestrian and 
vehicular, the best that could be desired? Are the two 
classes of traffic separated? 

Are the race-track and amphitheater well placed and equipped? 

Are the concessions properly cared for? 

Other similar questions will certainly arise during such a study, 
and should be answered. 

In case the class cannot visit any fair grounds in a body for this 
exercise, it may be possible for them to study the plan of some 
familiar grounds and to answer most of these questions from the 
plan. 

Finally each member of the class should reach the conclusion 
that the design of so complicated an organism as a fair grounds can 
be much better drawn by a trained landscape architect than by a 
county fair committee consisting of one retired farmer, one real 
estate promoter and one automobile dealer. 

Reference 

The pupil may find it desirable to consult the entire article by 
Mr. Robinson, parts of which are quoted in this lesson. This 
article on "Modern County Fair Grounds" appears in American 
City, 18 : 409, New York, May, 1918. 



209 




LESSON 45 

Civic Center 

HE purposes of this lesson are to develop the sig- 
nificance of the civic center in city and country 
planning, to place two or three simple examples 
before the student's attention, and to make a 
study of civic centers in the pupil's home neigh- 
borhood. 



Definition 

A civic center is a group of public buildings placed conveniently 
near together, with the grounds surrounding them. 

These buildings may be few or many, large or small, simple or 
grandiose in the extreme. There may be included in the group also 
certain quasi-public buildings, such as churches, parochial schools, 
telephone exchange, hotel, etc. Any buildings largely used by the 
public may be grouped for the purpose of gaining certain manifest 
advantages. 

There may be civic centers of different kinds. For example the 
city hall, post office, customs house and court-house would form an 
administrative center; the city library, high school and concert 
hall would constitute an educational center; a union railway station, 
interurban trolley station and steamboat wharf grouped together 
would make up a traffic center. 

Discussion 

The advantages sought in such groupings of public buildings are 
both practical and esthetic. On the practical side it seems obvious 
that the public business can be transactedimost efficiently if the 

210 



CIVIC CENTER 




Fig. 103. Two Sides of San Francisco's Imposing Civic Center 
211 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



SCHOOL GACDEMS 




ij k^- 



PROPOSED CIVIC CENTER^ for^ RDSEVILLE OHIO 

SAMUEL D ZEHRJUriG LANDSCAPE AKTHITCCT JAM 1916 



Fig. 104. Deston for a Cmc Center 
212 



CIVIC CENTER 



various offices are located near each other. The Eastman Kodak 
Co. would hardly care to have their large plant scattered all over 
Rochester, nor would Mr. Henry Ford make his low-priced cars so 
economically with his factory divided into six or eight units and 
distributed to the four quarters of Detroit. In exactly the same 
way the public business of a town or city should be concentrated 
into the smallest practicable space. 

The esthetic advantages of bringing together the various pub- 
lic buildings of a town or city are even greater. If a city's public 
buildings are well and harmoniously designed and if they are prop- 
erly grouped and if they are given suitable open space the total 
effect is greatly enhanced. A city with such a civic center has 
something to be proud of, something to incite civic patriotism, some- 
thing to arouse and symbolize a love for "the home town." 

Many American cities are making earnest effort for the develop- 
ment of good civic centers. At this moment we may perhaps give 
first place to San Francisco, Calif., but promising beginnings can 
be found in a thousand difTerent municipalities. 

It must be understood, of course, that the smallest villages 
and country districts may, should and do have their civic centers 
just as truly as the great world capitals. Thus a post office, church, 
school and social hall brought together at the country cross-roads 
has the same civic significance as the great masses of big buildings 
along the mall in Washington, D. C. 

Illustrations 

Two illustrations of civic centers are included in this lesson. 
The first is a study based upon existing conditions in Roseville, 0., 
made by Mr. Samuel D. Zehrung, landscape architect. The sec- 
ond is an idealized grouping of public buildings at a country cross- 
roads. 

In connection with this lesson the pupil should also consult 
the plan of the court-house square shown on page 180 and the plan of 

213 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



. ' JP/ay§rou nc/". • 




30 4/0 60 Se 



'.^ry. rrw 



1/96 j-imjb/eot Civic, CenCen ' Idedl/^d 6y F.^. IP. 



Fig. 105. A Rtjral Civic Center 
214 



CIVIC CENTER 



the village center page 97, both of which represent partially devel- 
oped civic centers. 

Problems 

The pupil should first copy these two drawings at a scale of 
1" = 30'. These copies should be made in ink, or in pencil and 
colored crayon. 

The next step should be to discover and map any civic centers in 
the vicinity. To this problem the pupil should give special attention. 

Revisions of existing layouts may then be undertaken. Prob- 
lems of this kind are of course very difficult, especially if one regards 
the practical obstacles to their realization. The beginner in the 
study of landscape architecture should not expect to solve immedi- 
ately the most serious physical problems of Chicago, New Orleans 
or Atlanta, or even of Hickville or Podunk, but he can, profitably to 
himself, put a lot of study into such problems, especially if he will 
confine himself to small-town conditions. A good teacher can, of 
course, give many useful suggestions at this point. 



215 



LESSON 46 




Country School Grounds 

HE country schools of Ihe nation are highly impor- 
tant and the physical surrounds of each school 
play a highly influential part in determining 
final results. II is desired at this time to learn 
whal present conditions actually arc, what ideal 
conditions would be, and how the former can 
be made to approach more nearly to the latter. 

Specilically this lesson considers the plan of the country school 

grounds. 

Argument 

Size of Grounds: Some school grounds are too small. Ex- 
uberant school boys and girls cannot be confined like convicts in a 
penitentiary. The country boy who does not necessarily cover more 
than half an acre in his first ten minutes of play should be sent to 
the hospital at once. There is something wrong with him. In 
the country, where land is cheap and where people are unused to 
being crowded, the school grounds should be ample. One acre 
may be regarded as the minimum for any school; two acres is not 
too much for a large and well-managed country school; while high 
schools and academies, especially those teaching agriculture, will 
sonielinu's need five or ten acres. Country schools which now have 
less than one acre should buy more at the first opportunity. 

The School Building: The school house, which of course should 
be well built, well furnished, well lighted, well ventilated, well 
painted, and well kept, should be placed well forward on the lot, 
near the street. This is because land back of the school house is 
valuable, while that in front is comparatively useless. A distance 

216 



COUNTRY SCHOOL GROUNDS 



of twenty to thirty feet back from the road is usually satisfactory. 
Where practicable one good shade tree, — maple, oak, or elm, — 
should be placed twelve to twenty feet to the south of the school 
house, and another similar tree the same distance to the southwest. 




Fig. 100. A Clean amj Oudihi.y School Grounds 



The shadows of these trees falling on the building, will do more than 
any other one thing to relieve that appearance of forlorn nakedness 
and utter crudity so depressing in the average school house. Where- 
ever conditions permit much can be gained also by having a narrow 
border — three to six feet wide — of shrubbery along the house 
foundations. Usually these borders should be of native species 
collected from adjoining fields by school pupils. 

Other Buildings: As a rule the disgusting limit is reached in 
the insanitary outbuildings of the country school grounds. The 
disgrace of this condition is so commonly felt that no argument 
against it need now be made. The sanitaries should be placed at 
the back line of the lot, in which case they should either be separated 
by a fence or should be at the outside corners with the width of the 
lot between them. They should be screened from view by plantings 
of native shrubbery. In certain cases it is better to group the sani- 

217 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

taries at the back of the school house, connecting them with the 
woodshed or some similar structure. Very special effort should 
be put forth to keep them clean and in repair. 

Fences may be dispensed with on a good many rural school 
grounds, and should never be built unless clearly needed. Where 




Fig. 107. Improvement Plan for Rural School 



they are positively required they are usually best made of heavy 
woven wire, boy-high, boy-strong, and boy-tight, to paraphrase a 
famous saying. Every fence should have enough annual attention 
to keep it whole and standing straight. 

On a few country school grounds horse sheds will be needed. 
These should be at the back of the lot, out of the way of the play, 
but open to constant public view. 

218 



COUNTRY SCHOOL GROUNDS 

Play Grounds: School children need abundant room for play. 
One might suppose this was sufficiently obvious to be generally 
known, but the niggardly provision of land, even in the country, 
indicates that the fact has been widely overlooked. Apparently 
it has been tacitly assumed in very many instances that the school 
pupil will play in a neighbor's pasture or in the public road, where, 
between the bulls and the automobiles he might really get consider- 
able exercise. Yet neither private pasture nor public road is to 
be seriously accepted as a proper provision for valuable boys and girls. 

A baseball diamond is the first necessity for a playground. 
A full-size diamond, ninety feet between bases, requires about 
three-fourths of an acre in itself. A small boy's diamond, sixty 
feet between bases, requires half an acre, or more than the entire 
allowance for some school grounds. Other sorts of play should 
also be provided for, such as swings, slides, etc., with adequate open 
grounds for the usual children's games. 

The planning and equipment of playgrounds and the organ- 
ization of proper play is a whole subject in itself. In many com- 
munities this matter ought to be taken up urgently and quite aside 
from the question of school grounds. 

School Gardens: Every country school ought to be provided 
with some sort of school garden. Just what use will be made of it 
depends largely on the teacher. Even the poorest teacher can do 
something with it, while in the hands of a really good manager the 
school garden will become the most useful feature of the school 
equipment. 

The school garden should be small. A large parcel of land is 
apt to grow up to weeds. One quarter of an acre will be ample for 
most schools; and a quarter of that will be a great deal better than 
nothing. This garden, however, should be an integral part of the 
school plan. It should lie next to the playgrounds, and should 
form an attractive feature in the general effect. 

Trees and Shrubs: On Arbor Day it is customary for the girls 
to speak pieces and the boys to plant trees. Inasmuch as the av- 

219 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

erage school yard has room for only three or four trees, this exercise 
has to be given up or the yard is soon over-crowded. Plantings of 
shrubs about the foundations of the school house, along the prop- 
erty bounds and in front of out-buildings may well supplement or 
take the place of tree plantings. Such shrubs should preferably be 
of native species collected from the fields by the students. The 
best plan is to grow them a year in the school garden nursery before 



Two Acre School Grounds 
Designed by F AWaugh 



I I I I t I 



-♦-:^- 



;^/?^^T^^;yv\^^.^cixa^u^ . -^^^ )• y- >-=^fr -Ov ' /.^ 



BA5EBAU. 




BASKET- 
BALL 



Q;;: 







tisCHOOL: -CHILDREN ". 




-^' 



>^ 



Q 

¥ 



III! \mttttMm')tuv ' 



Fig. lOS. Codntry School Grounds with Play Grounds and Gardens 

transplanting to permanent situations. More elaborate schemes 
of so-called ornamental planting on school grounds are to be viewed 
with suspicion. Flower beds in the front lawn rarely yield any- 
thing more than disappointment, and not much of that. 



220 



COUNTRY SCHOOL GROUNDS 



Ground Plans 

The most important points to be observed in school ground 
design are: 

1. Convenience: The practical requirements must be met 
first and absolutely. They are very definite and cannot be ignored. 

2. Simplicity: The simplest scheme of layout is almost neces- 
sarily the best. 

3. Orderliness: A hit-or-miss, jumbled-up arrangement of parts 
is fatal to good design. 

The "beautification" of school grounds, sometimes soberly 
discussed, must be achieved through convenience, simplicity, and 
good order. A failure in these qualities can never be covered up 
by any quantity of "ornamental planting." 

General Care 

Maintenance is even more important than the original layout of 
school grounds. The grounds must be kept clean and in good order 
at all times. The school house and out-buildings must be clean and 
in repair. All this costs more in thought and labor than people 
commonly suppose. It is in fact much more expensive in both time 
and money than any scheme of beautification likely to be under- 
taken. Moreover, it requires much larger moral qualities to pur- 
sue the daily drudgery of maintenance and to keep everything always 
looking spick and span. It is a good thing for the school teacher, 
the school board, or the village improvement society to organize 
a campaign for the improvement of school grounds. It is an equally 
good thing to conduct a campaign for their daily care. 

Problems 

Problem I: Each pupil should now be required to report, 
preferably in writing, upon one or more rural school grounds, such 
reports, of course, to be based upon actual visits and careful ex- 

221 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

amination of the grounds discussed. These reports may be outhned 
upon the points covered in the preceding argument, and should 
supply direct and unequivocal answers to the following questions: 

1. How large are the grounds? Are they large enough? How 
much more land is needed, if any? What is it needed for? Where 
can it be added? What will it cost? 

2. Is the school house satisfactory? If not, what are its de- 
fects — Size? Appearance? Paint? Orientation? Set-back? 

3. Are there other buildings or fences? Are they satisfactory? 
What more is needed? 

4. Are the playgrounds adequate? What more is needed? 
Is play apparatus desirable? 

5. Are there school gardens? Are any needed? How can they 
be provided? 

6. Are there trees and shrubs? Are others needed? If so, 
what and where? 

7. Are the grounds well planned for efficiency and beauty? 
What changes could be made? 

8. Are the grounds properly cared for? 

9. Be sure to report the size of the building, the number of 
rooms, the number of teachers and the number of grades accom- 
modated. 

These reports should, of course, all be read and criticized by 
the teacher; but as far as time permits they should be read in class 
and freely discussed by all pupils. 

Problem II: Make a paced survey and plan of an existing 
country school ground, and on this survey prepare a plan for the 
ideal reorganization of the grounds. This exercise will work out 
favorably if all pupils in a class are assigned to the redesigning of 
the same grounds. The various solutions handed in by the several 
pupils should then be displayed together and criticized by the teacher 
and pupils together. 

Problem III: As this subject is one of great popular interest 
and social importance it may be worth while to extend the study by 

222 



COUNTRY SCHOOL GROUNDS 

taking up a third problem. For this purpose it will be well for each 
pupil to design an ideal rural school ground. Definite conditions 
should be assumed, for example, a one-room school in a stock farm- 
ing district attended by 35 pupils and covering grades 1 to 6. The 
ideal plan should be attractively drawn to scale, possibly rendered 
in water color; and all the plans of all members of the class should 
be displayed together for discussion and criticism. 

Readings 

Challman, S. a., The Rural School Plant, Milwaukee, 1917. 
SiMONDs, Landscape Gardening, Chap. XV., New York, 1920. 



223 




LESSON 47 

Cemetery Improvement 

HERE are two leading purposes in this exercise. 
The first is to study the common problem of the 
improvement of an old cemetery; the second is 
to illustrate that form of professional landscape 
gardening which uses the written report in the 
presentation of working plans. 

Regarding the first of these purposes it may 
be said that nearly all public cemeteries stand in need of improve- 
ment, that this need is obvious and generally recognized and that 
all cemeteries have pretty much the same problems. 

Regarding the second purpose we should observe that a con- 
siderable part of the practice of the professional landscape gardener 
consists in giving advice, which should always be written, and which 
nearly always can best be presented in a formal report. While 
the writing of reports is primarily an exercise in language there are 
certain formalities which should always be observed. In general 
the requirements of a good professional report are (1) sound advice 

— the recommendations made must be technically correct, (2) form 

— the materials should be arranged in logical order (3) language 

— terse, simple, clear language should be used. 

Materials 

There is given below a transcript of a report made upon an 
ancient cemetery in Provincetown, Mass. This should be studied, 
both as to form and matter. The principles discussed in this lesson 
should finally be applied to some cemetery which can be visited and 
reported upon by the pupil. 

224 



CEMETERY IMPROVEMENT 




lO'.i. Chapel and Plantings — Graceland Cemetery, Chk 
O. C. SiMONDs, Designer 






Herewith follows the report mentioned above: 

Amherst, Mass., Sept. 30, 1914. 
The Research Club, 

Miss Frances C. Gifford, Sec'y, 
Provincetown, Mass. 

On September 26 I visited Provincetown and in company with several 
members of your club examined the Old Cemetery. At that time I gave 
you some verbal suggestions as to methods for the improvement of this tract 
and promised to send you further this written statement of my advice. 

I found that the Old Cemetery is a field of 4 or 5 acres, quite irregular 
in outline and conspicuously rough in topography. The soil is mostly dry, 
loose, fine sea sand. This soil is bare except for an irregular growth of 
beach grass, some patches of huckleberries, wild roses, beach plums and 
similar low shrubbery, and a few picturesque old junipers near the center. 

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TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

The difficulties of establishing any sort of ornamental growth on this land 
are extreme. The chief of these, briefly stated, are the sterility of the soil, 
the lack of water, and the exposure to the severe sea winds. 

The first and most important thing to be done, in my judgment, is 
to establish a strong, heavy wind-break about the cemetery, especially on the 
windward boundaries. This wind-break should accompUsh two purposes, 
the first one practical, the second esthetic, but both of prime importance. 




Fig. 110. The Neglected Cemetery 



Practically it will be necessary to break the sweep of the sea winds across 
the cemetery before any other ornamental plantings can be established. 
Esthetically the privacy to be secured by an enclosure of green trees is in- 
valuable. At present the grounds are notably bleak, uncomfortable, dreary. 
Shut in by a wall of green they would be comparatively cozy, quiet and 
restful. Such a spot would offer upon these wind-tortured hills the spiri- 
of refuge which is the appropriate spirit for the Old Cemetery. 

This wind-break should be constructed of any trees which can be effect 
tively grown, species being chosen with reference to their vigor and hardiness 
under the very adverse conditions rather than to their looks or popularity. 
Such trees are the Silver Poplar, the Black Locust, Willows, Ailanthus. 

These should be planted in a thick border from 10 to 30 feet wide. 
They should not be pruned up to clean trunks, the object being to make the 
border impervious to the wind. Along the margins of this tree border may 

226 



CEMETERY IMPROVEMENT 



be planted thick-growing shrubs such as Sumachs, Beach plums, Bay berries 
and Viburnum dentatum. 

After this wind-break has become established, that is after a period of 
10 to 20 years, its composi- 
tion may be substantially 
improved by the gradual 
substitution of better spe- 
cies. Such kinds as Euro- 
pean linden, some pines, 
possibly spruces. Red Oak, 
Carolina Poplar, Lombardy 
Poplar, Elms, Norway 
Maple, which could not be 
grown on the open hills, 
may be brought in under 
the protection of the hard- 
ier Silver Poplars, Willows 
and Locusts. 

The second funda- 
mental requirement for 
the Old Cemetery is some 
effective ground cover. It 
will never do to leave the 
dry sand exposed. At the 
outset this ground cover 
must be composed of any 
species whatever which will 
condescend to grow here. 
The best of these are the 
Huckleberry, the Bay 
berry, the Beach Plum and 
the wild Roses; but any 
others which volunteer 
their services must not be 
despised. Even the un- 
pleasant Beach grass should 
be retained until something 
else will take its place. 

Some sort of ground cover once established, its composition can be 
gradually improved, as in the case of the bordering wind-break, by the sub- 
stitution of better species for the coarser and less agreeable. But some 




Fig. 111. An Ancient Church-yard Cemetery 



227 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

permanent cover of living material is absolutely essential to any further 
progress. 

The suggestion made by one of your members to use the wild cranberry 
("bog cranberry") upon the open spaces strikes me as very promising. Prob- 
ably experiment would discover practicable means of transplanting and es- 
tablishing this species in quantities. 

In this connection it seems best to advise you regarding two methods 
of great importance in handling all kinds of trees and shrubs, especially under 
your very difficult conditions. The first of these relates to the preparation 
of the soil, the second to the development of plants whicli will live when 
transplanted. 

In general you will find it advantageous to dig the soil up quite thor- 
oughly before planting. It is good practice to do this digging in the fall 
where trees or shrubs are to be planted in the spring. If a dressing of barn- 
yard manure, or of sea-weed, fish waste or similar material can be put on in 
the fall this will be an additional and important advantage. 

After trees and shrubs are planted, especially during the first year, 
it is quite important that they be cultivated several times with a heavy hoe. 
This will keep the soil in good condition, will keep down weeds, and will 
greatly assist the young plants through their most critical period. 

All trees and shrubs can be transplanted much more successfully from 
cultivated soil than from the open fields where they are growing wild. This 
difference becomes vital when conditions are as contrary as upon the soil 
of the Old Cemetery. I would urgently recommend therefore that you es- 
tablish a small nursery upon some piece of good garden land which you may 
be able to secure for a time, and that you stock this nursery with small plants 
of such trees and shrubs as you are likely to require. These small plants 
may be secured from the fields and should be taken in large quantities in 
order to allow for a considerable percentage of loss. In the nursery they 
should be kept hoed and cultivated, but need not be irrigated. After one or 
two years in the nursery they may be transplanted to their permanent po- 
sitions with comparative certainty of their growing. 

The incidental suggestions with respect to walks, steps, etc., made 
during our mutual discussion hardly need to be reported here. 

If I can be of any further service to you in any connection, I trust you 
will command me. 

I am 

Very respectfully yours, 

Frank A. Waugh, 

Landscape Gardener. 
228 



CEMETERY IMPROVEMENT 

Form of Report 

Any written report of this kind should take a definite form, 
substantially as follows: 

1. Address: It should be addressed to some person, com- 
mittee, corporation or society responsible for the work. This is 
the party spoken of by the landscape gardener as his client. 

2. Statement of problem: The report should begin with a very 
brief statement of the problem, telling where the property is and 
adding any essential facts. 

3. Existing conditions: Next should follow a statement of ex- 
isting conditions, especially such as have a material bearing on the 
problem. 

4. Solution: Now follows the main statement of recommen- 
dations, with any argument which may be necessary to its support. 

5. Details: Next the various details should be taken up, es- 
pecially practical directions for carrying out the work. 

6. Estimates: The probable cost of carrying out the recom- 
mended improvements should be estimated as closely as possible. 

Cemetery Improvement 

Nearly all old cemeteries present the same defects. The fol- 
lowing points must usually be considered : 

1. Clean up: The place must be cleaned up and put in order, 
fences repaired, monuments straightened up, roads put in order, 
etc. 

2. Regrade: Very often the lawns need grading. 

3. Reseed: The lawns nearly always need reseeding, removal 
of weeds, or other attention to the grass. 

4. Plant Trees: Occasionally one finds a cemetery which is 
overplanted with trees. The more common case is a lack of trees, 
especially good ones. It may be doubted whether the common 
tendency toward a predominant growth of evergreens is altogether 
appropriate. Certainly the best landscape cemeteries in America 

229 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

are characterized rather by their growth of large deciduous species, 
such as oaks, maples and elms. 

5. Plant Shrubbery: A certain amount of good hardy shrub- 
bery adds greatly to the landscape charm of any planting. Such 
treatment is suitable to most cemeteries. 

6. The development of broad landscape features, such as ponds, 
running water, woodland masses or open meadows, wherever pos- 
sible, will nearly always be desirable. 

7. Restriction and regulation of monuments is an essential 
feature of the management in many of the best cemeteries, but is 
not practicable everywhere. 

8. Perpetual care is often provided through invested trust 
funds. Such endowments are always desirable where they can be 
established under stable management. 

Assignment 

After this study each pupil should be required to examine some 
cemetery and write a report. These reports should be examined, 
compared and criticized to the fullest extent possible under limi- 
tations of time. 

Readings 

Weed, Modern Park Cemeteries, Chicago, 1912. 

SiMONDS, Landscape Cemeteries, in Bailey Standard Cyclopedia of 

Horticulture, Vol. IV, p. 1807, New York, 1916. 
SiMONDS, Landscape Gardening, Ciiap. XVII, New York, 1920. 



230 




LESSON 48 

Country Road Systems 

HIS lesson is intended to raise certain questions with 
regard to the layout of country road systems. It 
is hardly possible in the short space of an elemen- 
tary chapter to answer these questions. Indeed 
we may doubt whether they have ever been fi- 
nally answered. It certainly is dangerous to 
dogmatize regarding these matters. 

Illustrations 

Figure 113 shows the road system in a small section of Franklin 
County, Mass., where the land is very hilly, almost mountainous. 

Figure 112 shows a similar area in Barnes and Cass Counties, 
North Dakota. It will be seen at once that this second plan 
covers an area in which the roads are laid on section lines of the 
original government survey. In the other illustration the road 
system grew up under use. 

Discussion 

The general road plan however is a matter of the greatest im- 
portance to everyone who lives in the country, and even to those 
who live in the city and drive through the country. Where such 
radical differences exist as those shown between these two plans 
the question very naturally arises whether one system is better 
than the other. Careful students of the subject generally consider 
that the lattice- work system provided by the government survey 
and shown in Figure 112 is defective and less satisfactory than the 
natural web of roads which grows up in response to definite local 

231 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



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Fig. 112. Typical Road Plan in Government Survey Area 



demands and which conforms to the natural topography as does the 
road system shown in Figure 113. 

The important point in reference to the natural system (Figure 
113) is that it follows the natural water courses and the most feasible 
topographic lines. The section here represented is in fact very 
hilly, almost mountainous, with high stony hills, and it would be 
utterly impossible to run the public roads in straight lines. Even 
on level land like that found in large areas of the middle western 
states there are objections to the lattice-work system. In many 
parts of the country there are more roads than are needed; in 
thickly settled sections there are fewer. Obviously the mileage of 

232 



C UN TRY ROAD SY ST E M S 



IVillaff 



VUlaye 




ROAD PLAM MASSACHUSETTS 



Fig. 113. Typical Section op New England Roads 

the road system ought to be roughly proportionate to the density 
of population. 

The arbitrary location of these roads on section lines often places 
them on disadvantageous terrain when even a small shift in one 
direction or another would have placed the road on much easier 
grade or would avoid bad cuts and fills or bridges. 

Another serious defect of the checker-board system is the lack 
of diagonal lines. This is so serious that it has been corrected in a 
few instances and must be extensively corrected in the future. 
Straight, diagonal trunk lines are now needed in many places, es- 
pecially between important cities and towns. 

233 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Studies 

Find Ihe necessary maps and from these draw off at large scale 
the road plan of your neighborhood covering at least one township. 
If this map can be taken from the maps of the United States Geo- 
logical Survey it will be possible also to insert upon the student's 
map some of the contours, and these will l)e of much value in study- 
ing the location of roads. 

The following questions should then be answered by every 
student. If these questions can be freely discussed in class the 
results will be particularly good. 

1. What type of road plan is represented in our neighborhood? 

2. Is it, broadly speaking, the best type for the needs of the 
present day? 

3. What improvements might be made in details (referring 
only to locations)? Could some of these roads be relocated to ad- 
vantage? Could some of them be closed altogether? Could any 
new roads be opened to the public benefit? Especially could new 
trunk lines be opened between important centers? 

Readings 

Bailey, The New Map of the Country, in The Holy Earlh. 
Waugh, Rural Improvement, Chap. III. 



234 




LESSON 49 

Trees 

HE purpose of this lesson is to acquaint the pupil 
with the more important species of trees used in 
andscape gardening, and especially those which 
thrive in his own neighborhood. 

General Facts 

Trees may be classified in various ways, according to their 
botanical relationships, according to hardiness, according to height, 
etc. A few of the distinctions most important in landscape garden- 
ing are the following: 

Deciduous trees are those which shed their leaves in winter; 
evergreen trees are those which hold their leaves through the winter. 
A majority of the most valuable evergreen trees are cone-bearers 
(such as pine, spruce, hemlock), but there are also broad-leaved 
evergreens, such as the live oaks. 

Exotic trees are those not native to a given region, especially 
those native to other continents. Native trees have certain ad- 
vantages, particularly in naturalistic landscape gardening. 

The size to which a given species usually grows obviously has a 
bearing upon its use in landscape gardening. 



Studies 

The pupn must become sufficiently acquainted with trees to 
recognize all the more important species instantly. This is obliga- 
tory. The best way to acquire this knowledge is through study 
of the trees themselves with the help of a competent instructor. In 
the absence of an instructor who knows trees the student must find 

235 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



other means of positive identification, 
pose are Gray's "Manual of Botany"; 



Good books for this pur- 
Sargent's "Manual of the 
Trees of North Amer- 
ica"; McFarland's 
" Getting Acquainted 
with the Trees. " 

The most impor- 
tant kinds of trees for 
landscape work are 
enumerated in the fol- 
lowing lists: 

Deciduous Trees 

Ash: Three or four 
species of native ash 
are excellent for mass 
planting on suitable 
soils, usually bottom 
lands or wet situations. 
They are not so good as 
specimens or lawn trees. 
Beech: The native 
beech is a splendid tree 
where it can be grown. 
The purple-leaved beech 
and the fern-leaved beech are interesting curiosities and very 
satisfactory if one likes that sort of thing. 

Birch: Birches have long been favorite specimens for front 
lawns and cemeteries. This fact indicates how uncritical is the 
taste which selects them. From the standpoint of landscape gar- 
dening all the birches are excellent for woodland planting, especially 
for the borders of park woodlands. 

Catalpa: These trees are not very valuable except that they 




lit 1 HF AMIKir^N I 



236 



TREES 



will succeed in many hot, dry situations where better trees cannot 
be grown. The flowers are rather attractive. 

Coffee Tree (Gymno- 
cladus) : This tree makes 
a good specimen of con- 
siderable dignity. 

Elm: The American 
elm is the favorite street 
tree wherever it can be 
grown and it succeeds 
over a rather wide range. 
It is also a desirable 
specimen or lawn tree, 
though it must have 
considerable room. 
Aside from this one spe- 
cies, other elms are in- 
teresting but are of no 
great importance. 

Ginkgo: A curious 
exotic from Japan worth 
using as an occasional 
lawn specimen. 

Honey Locust: This 
species makes a good 
shade tree, especially on 

the bottom lands of the central Mississippi valley, 
pruned it makes a first rate large hedge. 

Horse Chestnut: Excellent for many different uses. Makes a 
good lawn specimen, can be sheared, (this being a frequent method 
of treatment in Europe) and is especially desirable for planting in 
narrow streets where living conditions are difficult. 

Linden: The European lindens make very pretty trees in the 
states along the eastern seaboard. The American linden is worthy 

237 




Fig. 115. Soulang's M.^gnolia 



If vigorously 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

of planting occasionally, preferably on larger grounds and on good 
rich land in the middle states. 

Magnolias: Certain species are characteristic of the South, 
but other kinds can be grown as far north as the Great Lakes. They 
are desirable mainly on account of their showy flowers. 




-<»-. 



^^^^\s^;j^>:C-:^^t:^%^M^ 



I'lo. 110. Tui; siGAU Maple 



Maples: Here we have some of the noblest trees anywhere 
known. The common sugar maple is one of the best. The soft or 
silver maple is highly serviceable throughout the middle states where 
it is extensively used as a shade tree and for lawn planting. The 
Norway maple {Acer platanoides) makes a good lawn or street tree. 
The ash-leaved maple or box-elder is a very poor sort of tree except 

238 



TREES 



that it will withstand severe drouth and cold and can therefore be 
used on the most exposed locations in the northwestern plains. 

Oak: Another genus containing a number of our noblest trees. 
The best for landscape gardening are probably the white oak, the 
swamp white oak, scarlet 
oak, pin oak, red oak 
and mossy-cup oak. 
Popular prejudice does 
the oaks an injustice in 
believing them to grow 
very slowly. They are 
in fact most satisfactory 
trees wherever planted 
on reasonably good soil. 

Poplars: These 
trees are particularly 
useful on account of 
their rapid growth, the 
Carolina poplar espe- 
cially so. However they 
are short lived and have 
other defects so that they 
should not be planted 
where better trees can be 
grown. The Lombardy 
poplar on account of its 
peculiar form is chosen 
for special effects. 

Sweet Gum: Suitable for the middle and southern states — 
an attractive tree giving bright colors in autumn. 

Sycamore, Plane Tree or Buttonwood: The American plane 
tree makes a large showy specimen. It is most at home on moist 
land along streams, etc. The European plane tree is a little more 




Bob Oak in Winter Dress 



239 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

formal and makes a rather better lawn specimen. It does well for 
street planting where not too crowded. 

Tulip Tree: (Liriodendron) Makes a large tree and is very 
satisfactory where it has room enough. 

Walnut: The native black walnut is worth planting in the 
middle states. The Japanese walnuts make good trees when prop- 
erly placed in park plantings. 

Willow: There are many species of willows which can be used 
making excellent effects especially on low land and along water 
courses. 

Small Trees 

There are several small trees, some of them hardly more than 
shrubs, which are exceedingly useful to the landscape gardener. 
Amongst these the apple should have prominent mention. The 
common apple tree is a very desirable feature on many home grounds 
and is indeed well adapted for certain uses in park planting. The 
ornamental apples, such as Bechtel's and Parkman's crabs, are 
effective ornamental trees. 

The hawthorns also fall into this class of small trees. They 
are of considerable importance in landscape gardening. 

Various species of plums are also useful. In this list may also 
be placed the Buffalo berry (Shepherd ia), valuable on the north- 
western plains; also the mountain ash (Sorbus) valuable in the 
north. 

Evergreen Trees 

Cedars: The native red cedar or juniper makes a striking small 
tree which thrives on dry warm upland 

Arborvitae or white cedar is a characteristic tree in northeastern 
states along swamps and lake shores. It is valuable chiefly as a 
hedge tree. 

Hemlock: Makes an excellent hedge when carefully pruned 
and is a good tree for mass planting in cool soils with northern ex- 
posures. 

240 



TREES 

Pines: The pines are unquestionably the noblest of our conif- 
erous trees. From the standpoint of the landscape architect they 
are best adapted to large mass plantings where something like forest 
conditions can be established. The American white pine is the best 
species for landscape use, though there are other kinds which are 
worth while under special conditions. 

Retinespora: These are Japanese species extensively grown 
in the nurseries for ornamental effects. They are valuable for fancy 
groups and small masses. 

Spruce: The Norway spruce is a favorite for landscape plant- 
ing and though it is short lived may be widely used. The Colorado 
blue spruce has had an extraordinary vogue and has been greatly 
overplanted. The spruces make good hedge plants and wind-breaks. 
Outside of this use they are more valuable for large forest-like plant- 
ings than for individual specimens on lawns. 



241 




LESSON 50 

Hardy Shrubs 

HIS lesson should introduce the student to the 
study of shrubs. It is a study however which 
will require long and serious application before 
a knowledge of these indispensable materials is 
secured sufficient to guide the landscape gardener 
in his daily work. 

Discussion 

Shrubs are important in every type of landscape gardening but 
especially in the free naturalistic style as practiced in England and 
America. 

American practice, based upon sound esthetic reasons, gives 
strong preference to hardy native species. Besides those species 
strictly native to this continent there are a number so far domesti- 
cated as to be accepted to horticultural citizenship without further 
question. Amongst these the garden lilac stands preeminent, but 
other shrubs which are so fully naturalized as to be used freely in 
any plantings are mock orange (syringa), some of the spireas, the 
Japanese barberry and the privets. 

Shrubs are particularly useful in making foundation plantings, 
in forming screens or borders along boundaries, and in foreground 
planting in front of trees. 

Shrubs should nearly always be massed, several plants of a 
species being put together with few species in any one group. To 
harmonize several species in one group requires considerable skill 
and should be undertaken only by landscape planters of experience. 
Shrubs are seldom very attractive when used as single specimens, 

242 



HARDY SHRUBS 




FiQ. 118. The Sphinotlme Show of Lilacs 



a method of planting too frequently seen on the grounds of laymen 
who have no education in horticulture or landscape gardening. 

The following list includes the more important genera and 
species : 

Alder: The alders are coarse shrubs or small trees best suited 
to planting along water courses, the margins of ponds or in swampy 
land. 

Azalea: Several species are very attractive in blossom. The 
most popular are perhaps the swamp pink {A. nudijlorum) and 
Vasey's azalea {A. Vaseyi). 

243 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




Fig. 119. Rhododendrons in Flower 



Amorpha or false indigo makes a large coarse shrub with pin- 
nate leaves and is suitable for coarse background planting. 

Aralia, Angelica or Hercules Club makes a large coarse tree-like 
shrub suitable for special effects. 

Acanthopanax pantaphyllus is a hardy vigorous thorny shrub 
of considerable value in general landscape work. 

Barberry: The barberries will stand considerable shade and are 
valuable on this account. They also make good hedges. The 
Japanese barberry is particularly hardy and neat and has accord- 
ingly been extensively used in mass plantings, shrubbery borders, 
foundation plantings, etc. 

Buckthorn (Rhamnus): An excellent hedge plant formerly 

244 



HARDY SHRUBS 



quite popular and worthy of more general planting at the present 
time. 

Buttonbush (Cephalanthus) is a coarse, hardy, rather attractive 
shrub suitable for planting along pond shores. 

Caragana or Siberian pea tree is valuable chiefly because of 
its exceeding hardiness. 

Currant: Several members of this genus, especially the Mis- 
souri currant, make good shrubs. 

Deutzia: This group includes some of the best lawn shrubs, 
especially D. gracilis and D. lemoinei. 

Dogwood: Several of the dogwoods are highly desirable for 
landscape work. Those to be especially mentioned are the red 
branched species, Cornus stolonifera, C. alba and C. sanguinea, also 
the white fruited dogwood C. candidissima. The very popular 
flowering dogwood C. florida is more of a tree than a shrub. 

Elder: Two native American species of elder are valuable for 
park work. 

Forsythia: Three species are commonly offered in nursery- 
men's catalogs, all of them highly valuable for all kinds of land- 
scape planting. 

Fringe Tree (Chionanthus) : A large coarse rather showy shrub 
of only moderate value. 

Hydrangea: The common Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora is 
one of the most showy shrubs grown and too much used on that 
account. Another over-popular sort is Summer Snowball {Hydrangea 
arborescens sterilis). The oak-leaved hydrangea is also a good shrub. 

Honeysuckle: Several species of honeysuckle make good shrubs, 
especially the Tartarian {Lonicera tartar ica) and Morrow's (L. Mor- 
rowi). 

Kerria: A small fine shrub excellent for foundation plantings 
and other close work. 

Japanese Quince: A good shrub which has gone somewhat out 
of fashion in recent years. Makes an excellent hedge. 

Lilac: This is one of the old favorites and most meritorious 

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TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

of all shrubs. It is best to use the carefully selected named vari- 
eties. The lilac by its domestic character is especially suited to 
home grounds. 

Ninebark, sometimes called Spirea opulifolia. A large coarse- 
limbed shrub excellent for mass planting. 

Oleaster or Elxagnus: Two or three species of excellent hardy 
small shrubs. 

Redbud {Cercis or Judas Tree): Showy in early spring but 
otherwise of no great value. 




III. IJO 'I III \\rivi; I'liAiRiE Hose — Rosa set igera 



Rhododendron: This group includes some of the most impor- 
tant broad-leaved evergreens. The growing of rhododendrons is 
something of a specialized art and there are many localities where 
they cannot be grown even with the utmost skill. Where they suc- 
ceed they are very showy and useful. 

246 



HARDY SHRUBS 



Roses: There are many species and varieties of hardy shrubby 
roses which are valuable in park planting. Perhaps the prairie 
rose (R. setigera) is the best of these. Many of the dwarf ramblers, 
multiflora roses, sweet briars, the Japanese Rosa rugosa and other 
varieties must be given careful consideration in any sort of planting. 

Pachysandra: A very low growing herbaceous shrub especially 
valuable as a ground cover. 

Pearl Bush (Exochorda), a large upright rather coarse shrub with 
cheerful white flowers. 

Privet: There are several species of privet, all of them highly 
valuable. They will grow in shady spots where very few species 
will succeed. Their hardiness and their glossy green foliage make 
them excellent in foundation plantings and general shrub masses, 
while they are hardly surpassed anywhere for hedge plantings. 

Spice Bush (Calycanthus) : Useful in general shrubbery masses. 

Spirea: This genus contains a number of species of the highest 
value in landscape work. The most popular are the Bridalwreath 
(5. Van Houttei) S. Thunbergii, S. callosa, S. prunifolia and the 
popular but ill-colored Anthony Waterer. 

Snowberry: A delicate, attractive shrub valuable for its white 
berries borne through the autumn and winter. To this genus 
Symphoricarpos belongs also the Coralberry, a good hardy shrub 
with pink fruit. 

Sumac: The best species in this important genus are the smooth 
sumac (Rhus glabra) the stag-horn sumac {R. typhina) and the aro- 
matic sumac {R. aromatica). 

Syringa, Mock Orange or Philadelphus, one of the old favorites: 
A large strong-growing rather coarse shrub with beautiful fragrant, 
white flowers. Some of the newer hybrid varieties are excellent. 

Viburnum: A number of species in this genus are valuable for 
garden planting. The best ones are V. acerifolium, V. cassinoides, 
V. dentatum, V. lantana, V. lentago, the high-bush cranberry (V. 
opulus) the snowball (V. opulus sterilis) the Japanese snowball 
(V. tomentosum plicanum). These are all hardy and easily grown. 

247 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




I'lG. l-'l. W nuh-ltoLi, I iburuuin tU6S»ioif/es 



Weigelia (Diervilla): Hardy flowering shrubs and generally 
useful. 

Willows: There are many shrubby species of willows which 
can be efYectively employed in landscape planting. Many of these 
are most effective in shrubbery plantings when cut back every year 
or two and allowed to sprout from the ground. 



Study 

It is essential that the pupil give extended and faithful study to 
this interesting and endless subject. Acquaintance should be made 
with all the shrubs cultivated in the vicinity, and they should be 

248 



HARDY SHRUBS 



positively identified with their proper names. The pupil should 
then make an extended notebook recording the height to which 
they grow, time of flowering, character of flowers and foliage, soil 
requirements and any other practical information which may come 
to light. 

Every school grounds and college campus should have, as 
a matter of course, a good collection of trees and shrubs planted 
partly with a view to teaching of this sort. But every good teacher 
will extend his instruction far beyond the home campus, and will 
visit the best parks, private grounds and nurseries within reach. 
Equally detailed and careful attention should also, as a matter of 
course, be given to the study of native materials growing in the wild. 

Readings 

Bailey's "Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture," invaluable at 
many other points, is particularly useful for its descriptions of shrubs. 

The catalogs of good nurseries constitute about the best litera- 
ture available in this field and every teacher should collect a supply 
for his classes. 

Kirkegaard's "Trees, Shrubs, Vines and Herbaceous Perennials," 
Boston, 1912, is a specially handy reference work. 



249 




LESSON 51 

Climbing Vines 

HIS lesson is designed to introduce the subject of 
climbing vines and their use in landscape garden- 
ing. 

Uses 

Vines are employed in landscape gardening 
for several difYerent purposes. Doubtless the 
most popular use is upon house porches where vines are grown for 
shade, ornament and to give some privacy. Climbers of other 
kinds, such as Japanese ivy, are used on brick, stone or stucco 
walls, sometimes even upon wooden buildings, mainly for ornament. 
Rightly used they add greatly to the beauty of certain buildings. 
On pergolas, arbors and summer houses vines become an absolute 
necessity. They are effectively grown also on fences, whether of 
wire, wood or stone. They are sometimes used to clamber down 
rough banks. Finally they are used for covering unsightly objects. 
Vines should never be used without a definite purpose. When 
one finds a vine (rose or clematis) planted in the midst of a lawn for 
which a special trellis must be provided merely to support the vine, 
it is then obvious that the vine had no original business there. 
Any purposeless planting of this sort has a highly evil psychological 
effect in gardening as in all other arts. 

List of Varieties 

The following list includes the vines most useful in general 
landscape planting: 

Adinidia: This husky-growing Japanese vine thrives in the 
northeastern states. It is rather too rank for house porches, but 

250 



CLIMBING VINES 



its clean growth and complete freedom from disease or insect attack 
make it fairly satisfactory nevertheless. 

Bittersweet: Two or three species of bittersweet are all good, 
but the native (Celasirus scandens) is the most desirable, especially 
on account of its bright orange fruit. 




Fig. 1'22. Actinidia and Trumpet Vine 



Clematis: This genus also contains a number of attractive 
ornamental species some of which are climbers, some trailers and 
some merely shrubs. The most popular climber for use on house 
porches is probably the Japanese species {Clematis paniculata). 
The species with large purple flowers (C. Jackmanii) is also much 
admired. The native Virgin's Bower is particularly adapted to 
covering stone fences and similar rough work. 

Dutchman's Pipe (Aristolochia) : A strong-growing, hardy vine 
with very large dark green leaves. This should be used where 
heavy cover is desired. It is not so well adapted to house porches. 

Grapes: All the native American grapes are good climbers and 

251 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

are very satisfactory in this role from the landscape gardening stand- 
point. They are especially adapted for use upon pergolas, and are 
not wholly impossible on house porches, especially if used at the rear 
of the house. The named horticultural varieties bearing superior 
fruit should be chosen in preference to others, although the native 
Frost grape is desirable on account of its foliage and habit of growth. 




Fig. 123. Clematis or Virgin's Bower 



Honeysuckle: The species of this genus {Lonicera) are not very 
good climbers although the old-fashioned trumpet honeysuckle 
(L. sempervirens) is worth some trouble. Hall's honeysuckle is 
more of a clambering or trailing vine and is very good for covering 
fences, banks and waste places generally. 

Roses are very popular in the role of climbers. The ever- 
popular Crimson Rambler has been too widely planted, especially 
where it appears against brick walls or in other surroundings in- 

252 



CLIMBING VINES 



harmonious with its vivid color. Varieties hke Lady Grey, Dorothy 
Perkins and others of less brilliant hue are more generally satisfactory 
when used immediately against dwelling houses. There are in fact 
a great many good varieties of climbing roses and popular selection 
should not be so strictly limited to a single sort. 

Trumpet Flower [Tecoma): A large coarse-growing vine best 
adapted for large work on out-buildings. It has attractive flowers. 

Woodbine: The native woodbine is one of the most generally 
satisfactory climbers in the entire list. A closely related species 
{Ampelopsis heterophylla) is an attractive climber and worthy of 
more general use. 

Wistaria: A strong hardy climber with very attractive showy 
flowers. An old-fashioned favorite. 

Annuals: Several annual plants are used as climbers, the best 
being morning-glory, the climbing cucumber (Echinocystis) and the 
hop vine. 

Study 

As in dealing with other groups of plant materials the pupil 
should make long and thorough studies of climbing vines in field 
and garden. Extended notes should be taken. The help of a 
teacher or of several teachers should be sought. 

Readings 

The best nursery catalogs give much useful information on 
vines. 

Kirkegaard's "Trees, Shrubs, Vines and Hardy Perennials," 
already referred to, is useful. 



253 




LESSON 52 

Hardy Perennials 

HIS lesson should introduce the pupil to the study 
of hardy perennials, their names, their visual char- 
acters, their habits and requirements, and their 
uses in landscape gardening. 

Uses 

Hardy perennials play a considerable role in landscape garden- 
ing. In home gardening and in the making of small formal gardens 
they quite frequently take the front of the stage. They are es- 
pecially desirable in developing "old-fashioned flower gardens." 
In the more florid types of park making they are extensively used. 
In general they are desired for their bright flowers and should be 
preferred to tender annuals or greenhouse goods which succumb to 
the first frosts of autumn and which have to be replaced at consid- 
erable expense each spring. 

Leading Kinds 

There are hundreds of genera, thousands of species and millions 
of varieties of these hardy perennials. New kinds are being intro- 
duced faster than the ablest experts can learn their names. The 
only sensible course for the layman therefore is to learn to know 
a few of the best groups, especially the most old-fashioned of aU, 
such as the day lilies, the asters, the peonies, the irises and the lark- 
spurs. Even these he will know by a few leading varieties instead 
in the myriads of sorts grown by the connoisseurs. He can well 
console himself with the certainty that the oldest and most popular 
varieties are in all probability the best. 

254 



HARDY PERENNIALS 




Fig. 124. D.\y Lily — Hosta caeruCea 



This principle of limiting one's self to a comparatively small 
list of the oldest and commonest plants has to be adopted by the 
professional landscape gardener, in fact, as well as by the layman. 
It is merely a question of drawing a line. The landscape gardener 
should know a considerably longer list of plants than the grocery- 
man or the banker; the professional plantsman will know a great 
many more than the landscape gardener; but even the nuttiest 
plantsman must stop somewhere. No living man, sane or crazy, 
can know all the good plants in the world. 

The first duty of the student, therefore, is to ascertain what 
are the leading genera of old-fashioned plants, next to learn what 
are the best species or varieties in each group. This can be done 
only amongst the plants themselves, whether they are growing in 
gardens, nurseries or in the wild. All these separate sources should 
be utilized. The plants should be studied everywhere. 

255 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



A good teacher is highly desirable in these studies, but much 
can be done alone if the pupil has the courage and industry to keep 
to it. Wild species may be identified from Gray's "Manual of 
Botany" or from other good manuals. Many sorts can best be 




Fig. 125. Japanese Gold-Banded Lilt 

looked up in Bailey's "Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture.' 

Kirkegaard's "Trees, Shrubs, Vines and Herbaceous Plants" is a 

helpful handbook. The nurserymen's catalogs should be consulted. 

The following list enumerates the groups and a few of the species 

usually preferred: 

256 



HARDY PERENNIALS 



Anemone: The anemones or windflowers are always interest- 
ing. The best species for garden planting is the late Japanese 
anemone. 

Asters: The native American asters are splendid hardy plants 
when properly placed and cared for. The New England aster is a 
great favorite, but at least a dozen different species are worth plant- 
ing. 

Columbine (Aquilegia): Dainty flowers, native, imported and 
hybrid, mostly suitable for well-kept gardens. 

Coreopsis: Hardy species with bright yellow flowers for garden 
planting. 

Day Lily (Hemerocallis) : This group contains a number of 
species and varieties some of them much better than others. The 
lemon lily {A. flcwa) is popular and attractive. Florham is a larger 
and finer variety. Some of the dwarf early orange flowering species 
such as Middendorfii are also good. 

The popular name day lily is also applied to the Hostas or 
Funkias, of which there are some good sorts especially H. cerulea and 
H. grandiflora alba. 

The evening primrose (Oenothera) group contains several fine 
showy yellow flowering varieties good for the hardy border. 

Ferns: Several species of hardy ferns are excellent for land- 
scape planting. They are adapted to many different conditions 
and soils and to various landscape uses. 

Foxglove: A brilliant hardy popular plant always attractive 
in perennial borders. 

Goldenrod: This peculiarly American genus includes several 
very attractive species. Most of these can be cultivated in the 
garden to good effect or can be used in perennial borders when some 
thought is given to their proper surroundings. 

Helenium, sometimes called sneezeweed, which is not a very 
attractive name for a really good plant. These are tall lusty plants 
with showy flowers coming into bloom in the latter part of the 
summer. 

257 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




Fig. 126. Peony Festiva Maxima 



Hollyhocks: Old garden favorites, a little difficult to grow but 
worth the trouble. 

Iris: This group includes thousands of varieties of many 
different groups. The most important are the German iris, Japanese 
iris, Siberian iris. These are splendid garden plants which may be 
planted almost anywhere and should be freely used. 

Larkspur: Always desirable on account of their pure and 
beautiful colors, mostly various shades of blue. These are par- 
ticularly suitable for borders of hardy perennials. 

Lily: The old-fashioned tiger lily is the hardiest and safest 
of this group and has various uses in the garden. Several other 
species grow well in the herbaceous border especially L. elegans and 
its varieties. Other species do better planted under shrubbery. 
In this list may be included L. speciosum, L. candidum, L. auraium, 
L. henryi. 

258 



HARDY PERENNIALS 



Phlox: The hardy perennial phloxes can be had from the 
nurserymen in a long list of varieties. Special effort should be 
made to select hardy varieties of good colors harmonious amongst 
themselves. 

Pentstemon: Several species 
of this genus make attractive 
border plants. 

Peony: Here we have one 
of the finest of all garden flowers. 
It is old-fashioned and new- 
fashioned, many splendid var- 
ieties having been recently in- 
troduced. Perhaps the best of 
all for general planting is Festiva 
Maxima. Peony plants should 
be left alone undisturbed for a 
number of years in order to get 
the best results. 

Poppy: The hardy oriental 
poppies are very showy and may 
be freely used in border plant- 
ings. 

Rubekia: The popular flow- 
er in this group is the well-known 
"Golden Glow." Of more value 
are the improved varieties of the 
"black-eyed Susan" such as R. fulgida and R. newmanii. 

Spirea: The herbaceous spireas (Ulmaria) or dropworts are 
most attractive plants worthy of general culture. 

Sunflower: Two or three species of hardy sunflowers make 
excellent border effects. They are rather large and coarse and 
should be kept well in the background. 




L.Nl-LOWEliS 



259 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Studies 

The student should spend much time in the field identifying 
plants and making written notes. In this note taking he will find 
the card system best. Cards should be of standard library sizes, 
either 4" x 6" or 3" x 5". If printed forms can be made up they 
will help in getting a good set of notes. The form shown below has 
been used for some years at Massachusetts Agricultural College and 
found satisfactory: 



BOTANICAL NAME 

COMMON NAME 

Range 

Form Height . 

Twig 

Leaf 

Flower 

Fruit 

Soil 

Propagation 

Landscape use 



260 




LESSON 53 

Foundation Planting 

HE object of this lesson is to learn some of the 
principles governing foundation planting and to 
become familiar with some of the materials best 
adapted to that work. This study applies es- 
pecially to the requirements of a modest dwell- 
ing house on a small village lot. 

Definition 

The term foundation planting is applied to groupings of shrub- 
bery, vines and herbaceous plants (rarely including small trees) 
placed about the base of a dweUing house, schoolhouse or any other 
public or private building. The most usual objects of such a plant- 
ing are (a) to cover up high and unsightly foundations, (b) to break 
up hard and formal lines in the architecture, (c) to unite the build- 
ing with the grounds, (d) to secure privacy. Practical observation 
will show that nothing does more to make a dwelling house or other 
building seem naturalized to its surroundings — to assume a cosy 
home-like air — than judicious foundation plantings. 

Problem 

The small dwelling house here presented was designed by Walker 
and Gillette, architects, for the proposed war-time development at 
Ilion, N. Y., under direction of the United States Housing Cor- 
poration.* This is a small house of six rooms and bath, of excellent 

* U. S. Housing Corporation Report, War Emergency Construction, 
Vol. II, p. 186, U. S. Department of Labor, Washington, 1919. 

261 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




^./*- 



1. Rose, Crimson Rambler 

2. Deutzia Lemoinei 

3. Spirea Van Houttei 

4. Philadelphus coroiiarius 

5. Euonymous radicans 

6. German Iris 



Fig. 128. Foundation Plantings 

7. Kerria japonica 

8. Lilacs 

9. PjTamid arbor vitae 

10. Kohlreuteria paniculata 

11. Symphoriearpos racemosus 

12. Xanthorhiza apifolia 



13. Cydonia japonica 

14. Privet hedge, pruned 

15. Border of ferns and other 

shade-loving plants 

16. Ampelopsis heterophylla 

17. Peonies 



design and of a type likely to be highly useful in many parts of 
North America. (See also Figure 61, page 114.) 

In the present problem all other portions of the grounds are 
disregarded except those immediately adjoining the house, but it is 

262 



FO UN DAT I ON PLANTING 

assumed that this house stands on a small lot of level ground, that 
ft is placed near the street and that the porch faces the south as 
indicated by the arrow on the plan. 

The pupil should redraw this plan in full detail to a suitable 
scale. He should then make a careful study of the planting list as 
given and should identify all the species therein listed. He should 




I'll.. 12'J. i',i)u\, I'cirxiiATioN Plantings on Home Grounds 

make every effort to visualize the finished result and to understand 
why each group of plants have been placed in the position indicated. 
This being done it will be important for the pupil to make a new 
planting plan giving his own ideas of appropriate foundation plant- 
ings for the same house but using other material. In this restudy 
the pupil should first have especial regard to the selection of plants 
suitable to his own locality, and second he should be careful to sat- 
isfy his own preferences. Such plantings are, to a large extent, 

263 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

matters of taste; and unless the pupil exercises his own taste he 
will hardly make any improvement in this important matter. 

Observations 

It is important to observe that the house as designed by the 
architects is placed unusually low. While this is certainly an ad- 
vantage from the standpoint of artistic effect, it greatly reduces the 
necessity for foundation plantings. 




Foundation PLANTiNris Including Vines about a Lak<:k Birii.DiNG 



Next it may be said that the planting list here offered is un- 
necessarily long. More species are included than should be chosen 
were our purpose simply to give the utmost dignity of artistic effect. 
The larger selection of plants here used may be justified, however, 
on the ground that, on a small home lot of this character, the foun- 
dation plantings constitute a large portion of the entire garden. It 
is desirable therefore to have a considerable variety of plants for 
the sake of the interest which the owners have in such things, and 

264 



FOUNDATION PLANTING 



also for the very practical reason that different species arc at their 
best at different seasons of the year. 

If the pupil has sufficient time on this problem it will be ex- 
cellent exercise to prepare plans for foundation plantings using only 
two or three species. Such plantings can be made highly effective, 
but they hardly satisfy the personal interest of a family which really 
cares for plants, or indeed any family which has any well developed 
home interest. 

General Principles 

In designing foundation plantings it is well to bear in mind 
certain principles. It is important to remember, for example, that 
these foundation plantings are a wholly secondary item. They 
are secondary to the house, and they should be secondary also to 
the broader plan for the entire grounds. Foundation plantings 
should not therefore claim attention to themselves. 

This means definitely that showy plants of every sort, such as 
have bright colors or unusual forms should be rigidly excluded from 
the foundation plantings. On the other hand one should select 
quiet colors and textures and plants which are neat and homely in 
their character. The "old-fashioned plants," such as have been 
long associated with domestic life, are especially suitable. 

Inasmuch as these plantings are nearly always viewed at close 
range it is further desirable that the textures be relatively fine. 
Coarse textures and bright colors should be used only at a distance. 



265 




LESSON 54 

Shrubbery Border 

jUR purpose here is to familiarize the pupil with 
the use of shrubbery in landscape gardening, es- 
pecially the methods very commonly followed 
in planting small home grounds. On such places, 
of moderate size, whether in the city, the sub- 
urbs or on the farm, borders and screens of shrub- 
bery are of the utmost value. The selection of 
good species and varieties and their grouping into pleasing combi- 
nations, is one of the commonest garden problems. 

Conditions 

In the present problem it is desired to produce a screen sep- 
arating our own grounds from those to the north and to form an 
attractive background for the lawn and grounds in front. The 
two ends finish upon boundary lines running at right angles. It is 
desired to have shrubs of sufficient variety to make the planting 
interesting and to present something of beauty throughout the 
summer. 

Problems 

The student should undertake one or more of the following 
exercises : 

1. Redraw this planting plan to scale, and identify all the species 
as named. Effort should be made to vizualize the finished planting 
— to imagine just how this border will look when mature. The 
plan here is first drawn to scale in pencil and then inked free-hand. 
This method is recommended to the pupil. 

266 



SHRUBBERY BORDER 



2. Substitute other species for those named in this planting 
plan. Such a study in substitutions will be especially desirable for 
students in sections of the country where these species are not at 
home, that is outside the north-central and north-eastern states. 




10 A 20 30 



Fig. 131. Screen and Border 



1. Forsythia viridi.ssima 

3. Rhus glabra 

5. Amygdalus nana 

7. Dievrilla rosea 



2. Malus floribunda 
4. Kerria japonica 
6. Lonicera niorrowi 
8. Cydonia japonica 



3. Make a substitution study using chiefly or exclusively ever- 
green species. 

4. Make a similar planting plan for another measured border 
on some tract of land within reach of the class. Due regard should 
be paid to orientation, slope, character of soil and other conditions. 
This exercise is the most valuable of all and should not be omitted. 
Rather should the class work out several such plantings. 



Instructions 

A knowledge of the trees and shrubs to be used is obviously 
essential to any intelligent work upon this problem. The student 
must familiarize himself with species in the field — as many species 
as possible and as intimately as possible. The teacher should make 
the largest practicable provision for acquiring this indispensable 
knowledge of materials; but it must not be supposed that a famil- 

267 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

iarity with trees and shrubs is the main part of landscape gardening, 
as some persons appear to think. 

In all such plantings use comparatively few species. The 
plan now reproduced has too many. Four different kinds would 
make a better design than the eight here used; but the larger num- 
ber is adopted in here in order to increase the interest during various 
seasons of the year. 

It is essential that each species be used in mass. There should 
be ten or a dozen of a kind, and from that number up to 100 of each 
sort. 

Contrasted with these mass plantings occasional individual or 
specimen plants may be used. These should be of the finest sorts 
and should appear at the accentuated points in the planting (nodes 
or paragraphs). In the accompanying plan the flowering crab 
(Malus floribunda) and the dwarf almond {Amygdalus nana) are 
used in this way. 

A very common fault in such plantings is the employment of 
too many species and too few plants of a kind. 

In work of this sort avoid plants with coarse texture or of 
unusual colorings, especially all variegated sorts and those having 
red or yellow foUage. Such homegrounds plantings are subject to 
the same rules of taste as the furnishings in the interior of the house 
or the clothes which one wears about his daily business. Any- 
thing "loud," coarse or conspicuous is evidence of a taste unculti- 
vated and unrefined. 

Questions 

Where is the best shrubbery planting in your neighborhood? 
If good plantings are accessible it will be well worth while for the 
pupil to make measured plans of them, identifying all plants and 
entering the names on his plan. 

Under what circumstances might such conspicuous trees and 

shrubs as Schwerdler maple, Pissard plum, variegated weigelia, 

golden syringa, etc., be used? 

268 




LESSON 55 

Mixed Border 

ERE we have an opportunity to study a simple 
planting and to see how it is worked out by a 
judicious selection and combination of trees, 
shrubs and herbaceous plants. 

Procedure 

It will be worth while for each pupil to copy 
this plan and elevation at a larger scale; but the teacher may omit 
this work if he considers the time thus saved is worth more than 
the practice in drawing. 

The next step will be to study the materials used in this com- 
position. The trees are cherry, Carolina poplar, silver maple, and 
crab apple. The shrubs are Spirea Van Houttei, Eleagnus, Viburnum 
opulus, Cornus alba, Lonicera Morrowi and three Juniperus vir- 
giniana (red cedars) which may be regarded as shrubs. Besides these 
there is a border of herbaceous perennials and annuals. The pupil 
should be perfectly certain that he knows each one of the species 
here used and can recognize it in the field. 

Study 

The following observations should be worked out by the pupil: 

1. The planting runs in paragraphs. That is there are points 
of emphasis separated by stretches of less importance. The taller 
trees mark the paragraphic points. 

2. The planting also falls into horizontal zones. The trees 
form an upper and rear-ward zone, the shrubs stand in front of and 

269 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



below the trees; the herbaceous plants come next; finally the mowed 
lawn comes in front of all. 

3. Paragraphic points or points of emphasis should coincide 
in all zones. 




/TVDV 0^ t-L^VATlOM 




VIBUO.NUM y^ 




/I VD Y Of- PLAN • 
Fig. 132. Study fob a Mixed Bordek 



4. Bright colors should appear in the nearer masses against 
neutral or darker backgrounds. 

5. Highly refined plants with delicate leaves and pretty flowers 
should be placed in the foreground; those of coarse texture in the 
background. 

6. For best effect the sun should fall on the accentuated points, 
the shadows should fall in the interspaces. Roughly speaking the 
shadows are controlled by recessing the front line of the planting. 

270 



MIXED BORDER 



Problem 

Each pupil should now work out a simple problem for a screen 
planting covering 50 to 100 feet of border. These plans should be 
criticized in detail by the teacher, but the criticism which comes from 
a free comparison of all plans submitted by a class is also valuable. 

Credit 

This plan is taken from "The Landscape Garden Series" 
edited by Mr. Ralph Rodney Root, landscape architect, of Chicago. 



271 




LESSON 56 

The Native Landscape 

HE purpose of this lesson is to introduce the stu- 
dent to the study and appreciation of the natural 
landscape, and to indicate the relation of such 
study to the art of landscape gardening. 

Argument 

It ought to be axiomatic that landscape 
gardening draws its materials and ideals from the landscape. Even 
the most restricted form of architectural design still presents a 
landscape, a landscape doubtless diluted, and more like architecture 
than hke the forest. Yet insofar as it is not architecture — which 
is to say in just so far as it is landscape architecture (i.e., landscape 
gardening) — it is landscape. 

It will be readily agreed that the native landscape serves with 
special efficiency in supplying materials and models for that form of 
landscape gardening which we call the natural style. This style is 
highly regarded in America. It is hardly too much to say that it 
enjoys a large preference among professional landscape gardeners in 
America and an overwhelming favor among the laity. Yet the 
materials, the form and the spirit of the open landscape should be 
sympathetically understood by every landscape architect, no matter 
how narrowly his practice may be restricted to the most formal work. 

The great popular appeal of the native landscape and the close 
relation of landscape gardening to it are especially exemplified in 
the rise of the American system of National Parks. These represent 
quite clearly and categorically the American love for wild nature, 
and the development of such a system of parks quite as clearly calls 

272 



THE NATIVE LANDSCAPE 




Fiu. 133. Lizard Hkad Peak, Colorado 



for the exercise of the best talent in the profession of landscape 
gardening. In estimating the scope and power of this spontaneous 
popular movement one must count with the National Parks of the 
United States, also the National Parks of Canada, the National 
Forests of both countries, the National Monuments, the state parks 
and state forests. All of these are largely used for purposes of 
recreation and health, which uses are intimately related to the 
preservation of the natural landscape. 

At this point it is important to consider just what service the 
landscape gardener may perform in relation to these vast reserves 

273 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



of native landscape. Broadly stated his professional duties fall 
under three headings. 

1. To conserve and protect the landscape. 

2. To make it accessible to human beings. 

3. To interpret the landscape. 

Under the first head the landscape gardener cooperates with 

other agencies in the 
endeavor to secure ad- 
equate reserves of land 
and water (scenery) in 
various forms (state 
parks and forests, na- 
tional parks, forests and 
monuments, etc.) to 
protect these from mis- 
use and private exploi- 
tation (often a very 
serious task), to secure 
adequate financial main- 
tenance, and to provide 
the most efficient means 
of administration. Under 
this head fall also such 
matters as fish and game 
protection, the provision 
of wild life sanctuaries, 
the preservation of histor- 
ical and archaelogical 
antiquities and the im- 
measurably important 
problems of forest fire 
protection. 

In making the land- 
scape accessible the landscape engineer must first of all make sure 




Vu:. 134. MnLTNOMAH Fai.i>s, Oregon 



274 



THE NATIVE LANDSCAPE 



that the various available areas are severally put to their highest 
uses. Some will be best for free camping, others for municipal and 
industrial camps, some 
for sanitoria, some must 
be kept untouched on 
account of their extra- 
ordinary natural beauty. 
Such questions being 
determined, the land- 
scape engineer will pro- 
vide the necessary means 
of circulation— railroads, 
automobile roads, trails, 
etc., will locate the 
various camps, hotels, 
sanitoria, will provide 
for water supply and 
sanitation, and make all 
other provisions neces- 
sary to the end that 
men, women and chil- 
dren may easily reach the 
landscapes reserved in 
their behalf and may 
comfortably and safely 
enjoy them. 

The interpretation 
of the landscape is a 
higher and more difTi- 
cult function, not to be 
fully expounded in a 

paragraph. We may make use of the analogy of the musician who 
interprets the compositions of the classic masters. Thus the pianist 
Bauer is said to be an interpreter of Litzt, while anyone who has 

275 




Fig. 135. One op the Millions of Beautiful 
Canadian Lakes 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

heard Fritz Kreisler play selections from Bach has felt that that 
classical and difficult music was made much clearer and more 
intelligible through the interpretation of the great violinist. 

In like manner the professional landscape architect should be 
first of all an artist, capable of seeing, feeling and understanding 
better than the average man the beauties of the landscape, and 
capable, too, of interpreting these beauties to others. Obviously 
this is not an easy matter either to practice or to explain, but it is 
none the less of the greatest importance. 

Practical Study 

For the beginner the most fruitful study can be directed to 
forming an intelligent acquaintance with the landscape, beginning 
with the landscape which surrounds him in his own home. 

The pupil ought to become personally familiar with as many 
types of landscape as practicable. Such types are almost endless, 
but the following list includes what seem to be most important: 

1. Plains and prairies. 

2. Mountains. 

3. Hills. 

4. Forests. 

5. Lakes. 

6. Rivers. 

7. The sea and the seashore. 

8. The cultivated fields. 

Besides these are many others, some merely sub-divisions of 
those enumerated above, others quite independent, such as brooks, 
deserts, volcanoes, glaciers, etc. 

The student must begin by mastering the landscape of his 
own home. This means that he must know it in detail and must 
love it supremely. If his own home landscape seems duU and unin- 
spiring, no matter where it may be, he will never be able to appro- 
priate and spiritually assimilate any other landscape. Let each 

276 



THE NATIVE LANDSCAPE 



student therefore prepare in writing his answers to the following 
questions : 

1. What type of landscape is predominantly represented in 
our neighborhood? 

2. What other types may be found within easy reach? 

3. What is the best piece of scenery in this neighborhood? 

4. Where may the one best outlook or view be obtained? 



■« J>4-*gHi>.fc. i*iiJii«i ■ . 




Fig. 136. The Ghain Fields Alwayb make a Beautiful Landscape — Colorado 



5. For the development of natural scenery where is the best 
stretch of road in this vicinity? 

6. Are there parks, picnic grounds or other reservations com- 
prising natural landscape in this vicinity? Are there areas of special 
beauty, such as lakes, streams or woods, which should be so re- 
served? 

7. Is there good fishing and hunting in the neighborhood? 
Are there lakes, ponds or streams which might be stocked for public 
use? 

277 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

8. Is there a good "swimmin' hole" — one or more? Might 
there be other swimming holes established? Are these on private 
land? Could and should such facilities be made public? Should 
there be similar bathing facilities available to the girls? 

These questions should not be answered from memory and 
upon snap judgment but upon mature reflection and frequent 
re-examination of the land. After each pupil has matured and 
written out these answers the questions should be taken up in de- 
tail for group discussion in class. It is neither probable, necessary 
nor desirable that full agreement will be reached on all such questions. 
What is important is that they shall be freely and fully considered 
and that each pupil shall develop a genuinely personal point of view 
regarding such matters. 

Making photographs of scenery during such studies will be 
found most helpful, and an exhibition of such photographs with 
contributions from many students will have great educational value. 

Readings 

Waugh, Landscape Beautiful, Chap. I 
Van Dyke, Nature for its Own Sake. 



278 




LESSON 57 

The Country Road 

HIS lesson is designed to call attention to the 
beauty and high social serviceability of the 
country roads, more especially of the secondary 
roads and those not largely used for through 
traffic. 

Discussion 

The astounding number of automobiles bought and used in 
America is a direct measure of the popularity of the public road. 
By their purchase and maintenance of expensive automobiles mil- 
lions of citizens testify that their favorite recreation in life is country 
driving. 

Automobile drivers have been criticized for speeding through 
the most delightful landscape with small heed for the beauty of their 
surroundings. While this criticism lies with some force against a 
few automobile drivers it surely does not apply to the majority. 
If the only places for driving were subterranean tunnels with no 
outlook to the sky or the fields, pleasure driving by automobile 
would cease at once for all and forever. 

An instructive exercise could be provided for the pupils at this 
point should they be stationed beside any good country road to take 
a census of the traffic and to determine as nearly as possible how 
many passengers were using the road for business and how many 
for pleasure. On nearly all roads the pleasure traffic would be 
found in a very large majority. 

It being therefore the incontrovertible fact that country roads 
are used mainly for pleasure, it is only the part of wisdom to de- 
velop their equipment in this direction, that is to provide the 

279 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




Km. 1.J7. Map of Koai> 



pleasanlest scenery and most agreeable 
surroundings possible. 

Dclighlful scenery already exists on 
many country roads. In facl Uiere is 
liardly a road anywhere which is not 
inleresLing and there are many stretches 
of extraordinary beauty. 

Should any intelligent person, pref- 
erably a trained landscape architect, 
definitely set out to realize the utmost 
beauty on any given section of country 
road it would be found that much im- 
provement could be made at little 
expense. In certain places outlooks 
could be opened across fine stretches of 
scenery, vistas could be made up and 
down streams, better views could be 
prepared for farms and farm houses, 
some undesirable views could be covered 
l)y planting, new trees could be set 
along certain stretches of road, native 
shrubi)ery could be encouraged, also 
native flowers. Along with native 
trees and shrubbery would come 
native birds. 

Indeed very much could be done, 
but it is not important at this time to 
exhaust all the details of possible im- 
provement. We wish merely to point 
out the fact that the road is already 
beautiful, that it can be made more so, 
and that the great majority of men and 
women are already deeply drawn to this 
type of natural l)eauty. 

280 




I'lO. lay. JuNii-lSUS AloNU Tlil; I'AtsTUUt I'bNCK — View L> 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




^^...jM- 




...-^•^r.;"-^' 



l''i(i. 140. Acuo.ss Till-; I'ii;m>n iho.m Vii;wrciiNT A 




I'lc. 111. LdiiMM. ,\( iHi^s iiu: Valley kuom Standpoint ii 



282 



THE COUNTRY ROAD 



Example 

The photographs herewith reproduced (Figures 138-145) offer 
one example and a characteristic one. These were all made on one 
stretch of country road, approximately one half mile in length, in 
FrankUn County, Mass. With two exceptions they were all made 
in one afternoon, so that they do not profit by the kaleideoscopic 
variety introduced l)y the changing seasons. One has still to con- 
sider what this half-mile of road would offer in the fetching days of 




Fig. 142. The Vaum llousu FitoM Vikwpoint L 



early spring or in autumn with the maples colored, or in midwinter 
with a snow-covered landscape. Even on this one trip, which was 
made in August, another hundred pictures could have been taken, 
each exhibiting a view as interesting and as beautiful as the samples 
here shown. 

This is what the country roads are like. They are at once in- 
comparably beautiful and supremely democratic. They are for 
everybody. Their beauty is not kept secretly for the delight of an 

283 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

esoteric clique, as are some of the refinements of classic music and 
highbrow art. 

Seeing the country roads are thus the greatest art galleries in 
the world, it is highly important that everyone, and especially every 
landscape gardener, should appreciate their beauty, should help to 
conserve and develop it, and should do his utmost to popularize 
and interpret it for the common good. 




Equipment 

The pupil should be provided with sketch block or sketch paper, 
pocket compass, and if possible a good camera. 

Study 

luich pupil should now be assigned to the study of a specified 
section of country road, not more than one mile and seldom less than 
half a mile. Unless a very largo class has lo be assigned it will be 
best to let each pupil work independonlly and alone on a separate 
stretch of road. It is by no means necessary to the spirit and method 

284 



THE COUNTRY ROAD 



of this exercise that the pupil should study a spectacular or especially 
"scenic" road. The present effort is rather to find and to exhibit 
the beauties of the com- 
mon everyday country 
highway. 

Each pupil should now 
give earnest and detailed 
attention to the section 
of road assigned to him. 
He should go over it 
several times, preferably 
in different weathers and 
at different hours of the 
day, not omitting the 
night. He should locate 
and estimate every out- 
look, every tree or group 
of trees, every established 
group of wild flowers or 
shrubbery, every resource 
of beauty within the road- 
way. He should consider 
the interest of every farm 
house along the way and 
the beauty of all bordering farms — for farms are beautiful and 
interesting. Each item in this inventory should be recorded in 
the notebook. 

It should also be located upon a sketch map which the student 
is to make at the same time. The preparation of such a map (as 
shown in Figure 137) is made a part of this exercise. 

If possible these pictures should all be photographed. If the 
pupil has no camera he may borrow one. If he is not a photographer 
he ought to be, and there will never be a better opportunity to learn 
than right here. 

285 




Fig. 144. The Cornfield — Viewpoint C 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

The finished photographs should be marked and referred to 
their respective stations on the map. If the map is made to a large 
scale it will be possible to mount the photographs directly on the 
map with lines connecting each picture with its station. Such a 
study is instructive to the maker and interesting to others. II 




Fig. 145. In tui; Thick (jf tiik Woods — from Viewpoint E 



several members of a class can bring together a series of such studies 
the results will be especially agreeable. 

Finally the pupil should now consider and report what prac- 
ticable changes can be made in the road thus studied in order to 
make it more interesting and delightful to those who travel 
there. 

286 



THE COUNTRY ROAD 



Questions 

1. What might practicably be done to improve the scenery 
along country roads in your neighborhood? 

2. By whom should this be done? and how? 

3. Are there advertising bill-boards along any of the roads 
in your neighborhood? Who owns them? Whom do they benefit? 
How can they be abolished? 

4. How can travelers be made to see and appreciate more 
fully the beauties already existing along country roads? 



287 



LESSON 58 



Landscape Types — The Brook 

HE purpose of this lesson is to make an intimate 
study of a specific landscape motive or what is 
more properly speaking a landscape type, namely 
a l)rook. This lesson is also intended to serve 
as a model upon which the teacher will provide 
other lessons with which to introduce his pupils 
lo other landscape types and motives which may 
happen to be available in their neighborhood. 




Landscape Types and Motives 

A landscape type may be roughly defined as a generalized form 
— one which is widely repeated. The principal types are as fol- 
lows: 

Mountains. 

Hills. There are many different kinds of hills forming 
sub-types. 

Plains, including prairies and deserts. 

\'alleys. 

Cultivaled and inhabited farming coumry. 

The Ocean. 

Lakes of many sizes and kinds. 

Rivers. 

Brooks. 

Forests. 

A landscape motive may be roughly defined as the most prom- 
inent and most frequently repeated feature in a given or limited area, 



288 



LANDSCAPE TYPES—THE BROOK 

as for example in a certain park or along a certain scenic drive. 
Motive is synonymous wilh Iheme or subject; and as any essay, 
sermon, oration or written treatise must have one definite and un- 
mistakable theme, so must any good work of landscape gardening 
have one outstanding and instantly recognizable motive. 

In the case used for illustration in this lesson the brook might 
be taken as the motive or theme for the landscape treatment of a 
park. But brooks in general constitute a landscape type. 




Fia. 11G. VV'umiK thk Buook Sin(is to the Stones 



Argument 

Landscape gardening is to be mastered only through the study 
of the natural landscape, and the natural landscape is to be under- 
stood only through long, patient, sympathetic, intimate study of 
details — of motives and types. The present lesson will indicate 
how the student may proceed to make a detailed study of a section 
of a neighboring brook. But the same method should be widely 
applied to the study of other types of landscape. 

289 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



In particular the pupil should give the most careful attention to 
the home landscape — for unless he can see the beauty there it is a 
waste of time to fare further. The present lesson is illustrated by 
the study of a brook simply because this motive happens to be ready 

to the author's hand. The 
present writer would be 
particularly glad to offer 
rather a study of the 
prairie motive, for the 
reason that many thought- 
less and unsympathetic 
persons are given to saying 
that the prairie landscape 
is dull, monotonous and 
uninteresting. Quite the 
reverse is true, of course. 
The prairie plains present 
one of the most noble and 
inspiring types of land- 
scape on this old globe, 
and one replete in beauty 
of detail for those who 
have eyes to see and hearts 
to feel. 

This is why the teach- 
er is especially urged to 
provide ample opportunity, 
through other lessons, spe- 
cially arranged, for the in- 
timate study of the local 
landscape. It would be inexcusable for pupils in Colorado not 
to discover the beauties of the Rocky Mountains, or of those in 
South Dakota not to see the glory of the plains. 




Fig. 147. A Quiet Pool 



290 



LANDSCAPE TYPES— THE BROOK 

Example 

To illustrate this method of landscape study let us consider 
the brook. The accompanying photographs, with several others, 
were made one October afternoon along less than half a mile of a 
small pasture brook in Pelham, Mass. By ranging further up and 
down stream, and especially by coming in various weathers and at 
different seasons of the year, it would be possible endlessly to mul- 
tiply pictures of this same brook. 

Preliminary study of the problem in hand may begin with these 
pictures of the Pelham brook. Let the student answer to himself 
such questions as these: Are you quite clear that this brook presents 
a beautiful element in the landscape? Would you yourself enjoy 
visiting it? Have you ever seen such brooks? Did they give you 
any personal delight? Have you seen other brooks of different 
character? Were they more or less beautiful than this? How 
would this brook look in early spring? in winter? Would it be 
more pleasing at any other season of the year? Do the photographs 
here shown satisfy you as an exposition of the brook, or do they seem 
to undervalue the brook as seen in nature? Might certain of these 
pictures have been improved by changing the point of view, by 
showing more background or more foreground, by different lighting, 
or in any other way? 

Remark: It will be observed that evey one of these pictures 
includes a human figure. This must not be regarded as an imper- 
tinence, nor must these figures seem to draw attention away from 
the brook. There are two very clear reasons for introducing these 
human figures here. The first is that they give scale to the pic- 
tures. The second is that in landscape gardening the landscape has 
no significance whatever except in its relation to human life. This 
is a principle of the most fundamental purport, and one upon which 
the student should reflect often. 



291 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Study 

After the student has given careful thought to the foregoing 
argument and to the example of the brook here illustrated he should 
proceed to make a much more thorough study of some landscape 
motive or motives in his own neighborhood. In this study a good 
camera will be of the utmost service. Let the student take an 
assigned area (never more than a square mile; usually much less) 
of woodland, pasture, lake shore, cultivated farm land, canyon, 
sand dune, or any other type of landscape within easiest reach. 
Let him select the leading motive to be found on this area. Then, 
confining himself as closely as possible to the chosen motive, let him 
make a series of the very best photographs of which he or his camera 
are capable, his object being to find the utmost beauty and to show 
as many phases of that beauty as his invention can display. It 
will complicate his problem somewhat, but it will make the final 
result better, if he will use one or two human figures in his photo- 
graphs for the reasons indicated above. 

It will be desirable to have several members of the same class 
study the same area quite independently of one another. If there 
are more than five members in the section, however, it is recom- 
mended that they be assigned to other areas. 

After the photographs are all made and finished they should 
be grouped and brought into one general exhibit. At that time the 
I entire ground should be covered with questions like those already 

suggested: Do these pictures justly present a landscape motive? 
Do they show a landscape type? In how far have they failed to 
present the subject at its best? What remains to be told? Would 
other weather conditions or other seasons of the year add materially 
to the scenic resources of the area studied? Are the natural resour- 
ces of this area such as to warrant the landscape gardener in making 
a park here? What would the landscape gardener do to enhance 
the natural beauties as discovered in the present study? 

If members of the class can not be equipped with cameras for 

292 




Fig. 14.S. The Thout I'ool 




I''io. 149. The Fishehman Buews some Tea 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

this study it will be necessary for each student to analyze the scenery 
of the assigned area in the same way, to select a leading landscape 
motive, then to find and fix definite points of view from which certain 
aspects of the selected motive may be seen to best advantage. In 
default of the photograph, full descriptive notes must be made on 
each of these views, and upon this basis class discussions may be 
undertaken. 

When the class is constrained to study an area in this way 
without a camera it will be most desirable, after each pupil has made 
his individual studies and notes, for the class and teacher to visit 
the ground and to conduct their discussions in the presence of the 
specific views selected and marked (by stakes) by the pupils. 

Reference Reading 

If possible read in this connection Waugh's, The Natural Style in 

Landscape Gardening, pages 43-73. 
John C. VanDyke, Nature for its Own Sake. 



294 




LESSON 59 
The Landscape Links 

HIS lesson is intended to provide a method for 
the intensive study of some favorable tract of 
native landscape. This landscape is to be stud- 
ied with the special purpose of learning its pic- 
torial possibilities, whether developed or latent 

General Plan 

The general plan of this exercise is to have the instructor lay 
off a series of fixed views along a definite course. Hence the term 
"the landscape links," these stations being placed in a circuitous 
series like the holes in a golf links. Except for this distinctive name 
the exercise might better be compared to the afternoon walk, in 
which one tramps leisurely from point to point, stopping to contem- 
plate at ease each good view. 

Directions 

The instructor should choose any tract of interesting land. 
The more varied its topography and the more interesting its scenery 
the better. But no excuses are to be made. It is not necessary, 
nor even desirable, to include the Rocky Mountains, Niagara Falls 
and the Big Trees in any landscape links. Specially favorable op- 
portunities will be found along small streams, but any open pasture 
will do. Even cultivated farm land presents interesting scenery, 
or a really delightful series of views could be laid off along crowded 
city streets. The instructor in laying out his landscape links should 
use his imagination to full capacity, and if this organ serves him well 
there will be no need to complain of the landscapes offered by nature. 

After the instructor has familiarized himself thoroughly with 

295 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 







Fri. 100. The Cuun Field 




Fig. 151. Uplands — Fields and Woods 



296 



THE LANDSCAPE LINK S 




FiLi. 1513. A HuNNV UoAD 







' :,<t ' ' ** 



297 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDS CAPE GARDENING 

the area under study he will fix upon several stations where the best 
pictures are to be seen. The desirability of each station may be 
estimated by photographing it or even by imagining how it would 
appear in a photograph. An essential feature of this exercise lies 
precisely here, viz., in separating specific views from their context. 
The casual and uninstructed observer often fails to see the most 
intimate beauties of the landscape because he does not focus his 
attention upon them. He "can not see the forest for the trees," 
or, quite as probably, he does not see the beauty of a particular 
tree because it is in a forest. 

As each one of these pictures is selected the exact point from 
which it is to be viewed should be fixed. At the point of view a 
stake may be driven. Upon the stake an arrow may be set pointing 
to the desired spot. The successive stakes in the landscape links 
may be numbered in series. 

The number of stations in this series should not be less than six 
nor more than twelve. Obviously it will be desirable to make these 
as different in subject matter as the resources of the area permit. 
Some views should open toward distant prospects; some should 
focus upon definite objects in middle distances; some should be 
directed to objects in the immediate foreground, as to a group of 
wild flowers, or even to a mass of lichens upon a stone. 

The subjects of these views may be infinitely varied, such as 
distant views of mountains, lakes, cities; middle ground views of 
houses, fences, roads, water, brooks, waterfalls, bridges; or "close- 
up" foreground pictures of trees, shrubs, flowers, a bird's nest, a 
wayside well, a stile, a park seat. But let it be remembered that 
not more than twelve subjects are to be included in any one pro- 
gram. 

It will make the exercise more workable, especially for a large 
class, if a printed program of views is handed to each student, some- 
what in the following form: 



298 



THE LANDSCAPE LINKS 




Fig. 154. Young Hickories 



Fig. 155. Young White Pines 



Landscape Links Program 

1. Looking N.W., group of large hickory trees. 

2. Looking \V., masses of shrubbery along old fence. 

3. Distant view, looking S. across farm land to Eberle's Hill. 

Illustration 

An example of the manner in which this exercise may be worked 
out is shown in the photographs, Figures 150-156. These are selected 
from an even dozen made within an hour one September afternoon 

299 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

on an area of approximately 40 acres of rough farm and pasture 
land in Pelham, Mass., using an ordinary kodak. 

Equipment 

The pupils are now to be taken over the course prepared by 
the instructor. They should have as much time as practicable; 
but one afternoon is ample for the study of an appropriate landscape 
links where not exceeding twelve stations are located within two 
miles walk. Each student must have notebook and pencil. If 
possible each student should also have a camera; and under any 
arrangement one good camera with competent operator should ac- 
company the class. 

Study 

Each pupil should make up his notes in such a way as to enable 
him to answer the following questions. These replies should be 
fully written out as soon as possible after completing the field study. 

The Whole Collection 

1. Photograph or sketch each view. 

2. Describe and characterize each view briefly but accurately. 

3. Is there any order, sequence, climax or other relation in 

the series? 

4. Might any rearrangement, addition or omission improve 

the series? 

5. On what principle should this series of views be arranged? 

Particular Views 

6. Criticize each view in detail. Could it be improved? 

If so, how? 

7. Each point of view might have been better chosen : Crit- 

icize. 

8. Which is the most pleasing view? Why? 

300 



THE LANDSCAPE LINKS 



9. Is the value of any view influenced by extraneous as- 
sociations? 

General Questions 

10. Which views are best, — foreground, middle ground, or 

distance? 

11. At what distance do trees give the best effect? Running 

water? Still water? Buildings? Lawn? Meadow? 

12. Would different atmospheric or weather conditions make 

difTerent answers neces- 
sary to any questions 
on this sheet? For 
instance? 

13. Would this course of views 

be worth while in mid- 
winter, or at any other 
season of the year? 

When these replies have been 
written out, preferably upon the 
day following the field study, the 
entire class should be assembled for 
discussion. If photographs of the 
episodes in the landscape links can 
be on exhibition at this time the 
class conference will be greatly 
assisted. (It may be wise, with 
this in view, for the instructor to 
have a set of photographs prepared 
in advance.) 

The several questions set above 
should then be taken up for free 
discussion. Questions 3, 5, 8 and 
12 may be regarded as having special importance. It should be 
realized by all that a full agreement among members of a class is 

301 




Fig. 156. Old Pine Tree 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

not to be expected nor desired, especially upon such a question of 
personal preference as question 8 — though this is one of the most 
important questions of all. 

It will be found most interesting for the class, having completed 
this work, to go over the same course a month or two later, espe- 
cially after the fall of foliage or other seasonal change makes con- 
spicuous alterations in the landscape. 



302 




LESSON 60 

National Parks and Forests 

HE purpose of this lesson is to acquaint the pupil 
with the very large and immeasurably valuable 
reservations of natural scenery held by the gov- 
ernments of the United States and the Dominion 
of Canada for the use of the public. Every well- 
informed citizen should know something of the 
extent of these resources, where they are located, 

the special qualities of the more important territories, how they are 

protected, administered and used. 

Argument 

Certain areas of superlative grandeur are preserved especially 
in the National Parks. The Grand Canyon in Arizona and the 
Geysers of the Yellowstone are outstanding examples of this sort. 
Everyone would certainly wish to have such wonders of nature 
preserved forever and made always freely accessible to all comers. 

After these come great types of natural scenery, which though 
widely multiplied, are of such unquestionable beauty and worth 
that they should always be available for public study and enjoyment. 
Thus, the fascinating scenery of the Rocky Mountains is preserved 
and made accessible to all comers in Rocky Mountain National Park, 
Pike National Forest, Arapaho National Forest, White River Na- 
tional Forest and others. The splendid forests of the northwest 
are exemplified in Rainier National Park and the Olympic National 
Forest. 

Then, there are many areas of historic or prehistoric interest, 
such as Mesa Verde National Park, Bandilier National Monument 

303 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

and Gettysburg National Park. These should be kept open and 
accessible in the public interest. 

Without attempting further to classify and catalog these pub- 
lic uses we may say finally that wide ranges of wild territory, pref- 




FiG. 157. Old Faithful at Sunrise — Yellowstone National Park. — Photograph 

by Haynes 



erably country of good landscape, containing forests, lakes, and 
streams, are of high value for general recreation. These uses in- 
clude hunting, fishing, camping, mountain climbing, hiking, etc. 
The public reservations now under administration in the United 
States are being used at the present time by about 5,000,000 persons 
annually, a number which is increasing rapidly. The great body of 
recreation thus provided has an immeasurable educational and 
spiritual value. It also has an assignable commercial value which 
may be roughly estimated at from $5,000,000 to $10,000,000. 

304 



NATIONAL PARKS AND FORESTS 

The serious student ought to inform himself fully regarding 
the methods by which national parks, forests and monuments are 
established, protected and administered; but most of all he should 
make for himself the opportunity to visit as many as possible of 
these possessions in which he is himself part owner. 




Fig. 15S. I'iegan ^Mountain, (jlacier NATIO^fAL, Park 
Photograph by Robert Sterling Yard 

National Parks 

The American National Parks, as popularly understood, are 
administered by the National Park Service, a bureau in the De- 
partment of the Interior. There are, however, seven other public 
parks administered by the War Department. These are all shown 
in the following lists: 

305 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



National Parks 
Administered by Interior Department 



Name 


Location 


Created 


Acres 


Crater Lake 

General Grant 


Oregon 

California 


1902 
1890 
1908 
1910 
1832 
1916 
1916 
1907 
1906 
1917 
1899 
1902 
1915 
1890 
1904 
1903 
1872 
1890 
1909 


159,360 
2,536 


Grand Canyon 

Glacier 

Hot Springs 

Hawaii 


Arizona 

Montana 

Arkansas 

Hawaiian Islands 


61.3,120 

981,681 

912 

75,295 


Lafayette 


Maine 

California 


5,000 


Lassen Volcanic 


79,561 


Mesa Verde 


Colorado 


48,966 


Mount McKinley 

Mount Rainier 


Alaska 

Washington 

Oklahoma 

Colorado 


1,498,000 
207,360 


Piatt 


848 


Rocky Mountain 

Sequoia 


254,327 


California 

North Dakota 


161,597 


Sully's Hill 

Wind Cave 


780 


South Dakota 


10,899 


Yellowstone 


Wyoming, Idaho, Montana 
California 


2,142,720 


Yosemite 


719,622 


Zion 


Utah 


76,800 






7,039,384 



National Parks 
Administered by War Department 



Antietam Battlefield . . . . 
Chickamauga and Chata 

nooga 

Gettysburg 

Guilford Court House. . . 
Lincoln's Birthplace . . . . 

Vicksburg 

Shiloh 



Maryland 

Georgia and Tennessee 

Pennsylvania 

North Carolina 

Kentucky 

Mississipi 

Tennessee 



306 




50 

6,543 

2,451 

125 

1 

1,323 

3,546 

14,039 



NATIONAL PARKS AND FORESTS 




Fig. 159. Rocky Mount.^in National Park, Colorado 
Photograph by Fred C. Sears 

National Forests 

The National Forests, established primarily for the growing 
of lumber and the protection of water sheds, have developed a 
number of other utilities, such as the grazing of sheep and cattle; 
but they are also of great importance in the protection of scenery and 
the development of vast recreation and health utilities. They are 
administered by the Forest Service, which is a bureau of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. The present areas of the National Forests 
in the United States are as follows:* 

*This list is given as of 1921. As there are frequent minor changes in 
forest boundaries, these figures should not be used without verification. In 
the same way it is desirable always to get the latest data when accuracy is 
desired with regard to National Parks and Monuments. 

307 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



National Forests, United States 




Absaroka 

Alabama 

Angeles 

Apache 

Arapaho 

Arkansas 

Ashley 

Battlement. . . 
Beartooth . . . . 
Beaverhead . . 

Bighorn 

Bitterroot . . . . 

Blackfeet 

Black Hills. . . 

Boise 

Bridger 

Cabinet 

Cache 

California . . . . 

Caribou 

Carson 

Cascade 

Challis 

Chelan 

Cherokee 

Chugach 

Clearwater. . . 
Cleveland .... 
Cochetopa ... 

Coconino 

Coeur d'Alene. 

Colorado 

Columbia .... 

Colville 

Coronado .... 
Crater 



Montana 

Alabama 

California 

Arizona 

Colorado 

Arkansas 

Utah-Wyoming. . 

Colorado 

Montana 

Montana 

Wyoming 

Montana 

Montana 

So. Dak.-Wyo.... 

Idaho 

Wyoming 

Montana 

Idaho-Utah 

California 

Idaho-Wyo 

New Mexico 

Oregon 

Idaho 

Washington 

Ga.-N. C.-Tenn. . 

Alaska 

Idaho 

California 

Colorado 

Arizona 

Idaho 

Colorado 

Washington 

Washington 

Ariz.-New Mexico . 
Oregon-Calif 



841,079 

65,167 

818,782 

1,236,665 

634,485 

640,136 

980,096 

653,583 

660,680 

1,339,568 

1,124,617 

1,047,420 

895,238 

621,084 

1,059,719 

713,809 

829,206 

769,971 

817,172 

708,811 

869,320 

1,022,431 

1,257,443 

677,592 

179,295 

5,130,034 

785,376 

548,661 

907,000 

1,769,207 

663,531 

853,641 

785,227 

754,737 

1,430,381 

851,630 



308 



NATIONAL PARKS AND FORESTS 



National Forests, United States 


Forest 


State 


Net Area, Acres 


Crook 


Arizona 

Mont.-S. Dak 

New Mexico 

Montana 

Oregon 

Utah-Ariz.-Nevada 

Calif. -Nevada 

Utah 

Utah 

Montana 

Florida 

Oregon 

Montana 

New Mexico .... 


890,228 
592,501 

2,642,245 
830,464 

1,283,808 
509,110 
553,718 
700,890 
656,901 

1,707,912 
317 511 


Custer 


Datil 


Deerlodge 


Deschutes 


Dixie 


Eldorado 

Fillmore 


Fishlake 

Flathead 


Florida 


Fremont 


849,526 

567,614 

1,559,530 

905,409 

526,055 

393,571 

680,134 

1,171,961 

1,308,207 

1,879,284 

1,260,586 

1,042,884 

752,339 

455,083 

1,533,237 

1,332,353 

537,629 

950,484 

928,954 

1,095,938 

810,891 

1,123,975 

850,677 

19 443 


Gallatin 


Gila 


Gunnison 


Colorado 

South Dakota 

Wyo.-Col 

Montana 

Colorado 

Nevada 

Idaho 

Calif.-Nev 

Montana 

Arizona 

Wash.-Idaho 

Calif.-Ore 

Montana 

Utah-Col 

California 

Colorado 

[daho 

Montana 

New Mexico. . . . 


Harney 


Hayden 


Helena 


Holy Cross 


Humboldt 


Idaho 


Inyo 


Jefferson 


Kaibab 


Kaniksu 


Klamath 


Kootenai 


La Sal 

Lassen 


Leadville 


Lemhi 


Lewis and Clark 

Lincoln 


Lolo 


Montana 

Porto Rica 

Montana 

1 


Luquillo 


Madison 


931,885 





309 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



National Forests, United States 



Forest 




Malheur 

Manti 

Manzano 

Medicine Bow . 

Michigan 

Minidoka .... 
Minnesota . . . . 

Missoula 

Modoc 

Mono 

Monongahela . 
Montezuma. . . 
Nantahala. . . . 
Natural Bridge 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

Nezperce 

Ochoco 

Okanogan .... 

Olympic 

Oregon 

Ozark 

Payette 

Pend Orielle . . 

Pike 

Pisgah 

Plumas 

Powell 

Prescott 

Rainier 

Rio Grande. . . 

Routt 

St. Joe 

Salmon 

San Isabel. . . . 
San Juan 



Oregon , 

Utah 

New Mexico ... 

Wyoming 

Michigan 

Idaho-Utah 

Minnesota 

Montana 

California 

Calif.-Nev 

Vir.-W. Vir 

Colorado 

Ga.-N. C.-S. C. 

Virginia 

Nebraska 

Nevada , 

Idaho 

Oregon 

Washington . . . . 
Washington . . . . 

Oregon 

Arkansas 

Idaho 

Idaho , 

Colorado 

North Carolina. 

California 

Utah 

Arizona 

Washington . . . . 

Colorado 

Colorado 

Idaho 

Idaho 

Colorado 

Colorado 

310 



Net Area, Acres 



,043,777 
781,575 
697,488 
477,794 

89,466 
577,997 
190,602 
,030,717 
,460,402 
,250,017 

53,335 
698,222 
201,776 

97,328 
205,944 
,174,621 
,626,627 
718,024 
,488,410 
,535,506 
,053,700 
286,849 
,197,511 
674,766 
,093,156 
202,843 
,144,418 
683,580 
,447,850 
,316,679 
,135,167 
744,856 
556,438 
,620,387 
598,912 
,240,168 



NATIONAL PARKS AND FORESTS 



National Forests, United States 




Santa Barbara 
Santa Fe . . . . 

Santiam 

Sawtooth 

Selway 

Sequoia 

Sevier 

Shasta 

Shenandoah. . 

Shoshone 

Sierra 

Siskiyou 

Sitgreaves .... 

Siuslaw 

Snoqualmie. . . 
Stanislaus . . . . 

Superior 

Tahoe 

Targhee 

Teton 

Toyiabe 

Tongass 

Tonto 

Trinity 

Tusayan 

Uinta 

Unaka 

Umatilla 

Umpqua 

Uncompahgre. 

Wallowa 

Wasatch 

Washakie. . . . 
Washington . . 

Weiser 

Wenatchee . . . 



California 

New Mexico .... 

Oregon 

Idaho 

Idaho 

California 

Utah 

California 

Va.-W. Va 

Wyoming 

California 

Calif.-Ore 

Arizona 

Oregon 

Washington .... 

California 

Minnesota 

Calif.-Nev 

Idaho-Wyoming . 

Wyoming 

Nevada 

Alaska 

Arizona 

California 

Arizona 

Utah 

Tenn.-N. C.-Va. 

Oregon 

Oregon 

Colorado 

Oregon 

Utah 

Wyoming 

Washington .... 

Idaho 

Washington .... 

311 



,021 
,364, 
607, 
,159. 
,688, 
,879. 
720, 
824. 
276, 
,579. 
,493, 
,346, 
650. 
546, 
693, 
810, 
857, 
545, 
,321, 
,924, 
,871, 
,449, 
,988, 
,409, 
,298, 
,007, 
117, 
,228, 
,010, 
786, 
957, 
605, 
852, 
,459 
561, 
657 



,031 
,585 
,097 
,352 
,287 
,809 
,235 
,071 
,404 
,316 
,400 
,905 
,115 
,292 
,733 
,802 
018 
063 
691 
497 
464 
302 
806 
010 
115 
145 
539 
793 
633 
239 
419 
476 
315 
748 
575 
034 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




^- -^^fff^^'J^^ 



Fig. 160. In Camp, San Isabel National Forest, Colorado 



National Forests, United States 



Forest 


State 


Net Area, Acres 


White Mountain 

White River 


N. H.-Me 

Colorado 

Oregon 

Oklahoma 

Wyoming 


415,254 
845,104 


Whitman 


1,313,738 


Wichita 


61,480 


Wyoming 


974,514 








Net Total 


156,666,045 



312 



NATIONAL PARKS AND FORESTS 




fit. Ibl L) 1 1 ^ I Ji I t \Mi < 1 1 ND, White Mountains National FoKEbX, 
Nkw Hampshire 



National Monuments 

The government of the United States further maintains an 
important series of pubUc reservations, of rather miscellaneous 
character, under the denomination of National Monuments. A 
National Monument differs from a National Park in that the former 
is established by presidential proclamation, whereas the latter is set 
aside by act of Congress. The latter action is harder to accomplish 
and harder to set aside; and this difference gives a sort of theoret- 
ical measure of the difference in importance of the Parks and the 
Monuments. 

The National Monument differs further in its administration, 
being placed under the care of any branch of the government which 
happens to be already on the ground and in charge of the land. 

The Monuments now in existence in the United States are as 
follows : 



313 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



National Monuments 
Administered by Interior Department 







Established 


Acres 


Casa Grande . . . 


Arizona 


1892 
1916 
1907 
1911 
1906 
1915 
1906 
1909 
1918 
1908 
1906 
1908 
1908 
1909 
1914 
1906 
1908 
1910 
1919 
1909 
1910 
1908 
1917 
1919 


480 


Capulin Mountain 

Chaco Canyon 

Colorado 


New Mexico 


681 


New Mexico 


20,629 
13,883 


Colorado 


Devil's Tower 


Wyoming 


1,152 


Dinosaur 


Utah 


80 


El Alorro . . . 


New Mexico 


240 


Gran Quivira 


New Mexico 

Alaska . . 


500 


Jvatmai 


1,088,000 
160 
160 


Lewis and Clark Cavern. . . 
Montezuma Castle 


Montana 

Arizona 


Muir Woods 


California 


295 


Natural Bridges 

Navajo 

Papago Saguaro 

Petrified Forest 


Utah 


2,740 


Arizona 


360 


Arizona 

Arizona 

California 


2,050 
25,625 




2,080 


Rainbow Bridge 


Utah 


160 


Scott's Bluff 


Nebraska 


2,054 




Wvoming 


210 


Sitka 


Alaska 

Arizona 


57 




10 




North Dakota 


253 


Vucca House 


Colorado 


10 










1,161,869 



314 



NATIONAL PARKS AND FORESTS 

National Monuments 
Administered by Agricultural Department 







Established 


Acres 


Bandelier 


New Mexico ... 


1916 
1911 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1909 
1907 
1915 
1908 


22,075 
800 


Devil's Postpile 


California 


Gila Cliff Dwellings 

Jewel Cave 


New Mexico 


160 


South Dakota 


1,280 
299,370 


Mount Olympus 


Washington 


Oregon Caves 


Oregon 


480 


Tonto 


Arizona 


640 


Walnut Canyon 


Arizona 


960 


Wheeler 


Colorado . . 


300 










326,104 



National Monuments 
Administered by War Department 



Big Hole Battlefield 


Montana 


1910 
1913 


5 


Cabrillo' 


California 


1 










6 



Canadian National Parks 

The Dominion of Canada also maintains a gallant array of 
National Parks, including much of the very finest scenery on the 
North American continent. These are administered by the Con- 
servation branch of the Department of the Interior. Following 
is a catalog of existing parks: 

315 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 







Fig. 162. Rainbow Bridge N.^tional M(ini me.nt, .\hizon\ 



Canadian National Parks 

Rocky Mountains Park, Alberta, east slope of Rockies, es- 
tablished 1885; area 2,751 sq. miles. Ideal Mountain Playground 
containing the two famous resorts, Banff and Lake Louise, with 
much of the finest scenery of east slope of Central Rockies. Mas- 
sive formation of stratified sedimentary rock, upper slopes much worn 
and castellated, or glacier crowned, lower slopes covered with lux- 
uriant forests and flower carpeted alplands. Glacier-fed lakes of 
exquisite coloring, wild deer, goat, sheep, elk, etc. 

Yoho Park, British Columbia, west slope of Rockies, estab- 
lished 1886; area 476 sq. miles. Rugged scenery of west slope of 
Rockies, narrow transverse valley of Kickinghorse, precipitous 
peaks, large number with permanent ice caps or glaciers, wonderful 

316 



NATIONAL PARKS AND FORESTS 

Yoho valley with falls over 1200 feet in height. Four great snow- 
fields at head. Natural bridge. Emerald lake, lakes O'Hara and 
McArthur. 

Glacier Park, British Columbia, summit of Selkirks, estab- 
lished 1886; area 468 sq. miles. More massive formation of older 
range. Peaks worn down almost to timber line crowned with in- 
numerable glaciers; luxuriant forests, alpine flower gardens. One 
of the best centres for alpine climbers and students of glacier for- 
mation, Illecillewaet and Asulkan valleys and glaciers, Nakimu caves, 
Marion Lake, Rogers and Baloo passes. 

Revelstoke Park, British Columbia, established 1914; area 
95 sq. miles. Fourteen-mile motor drive up Mt. Revelstoke afford- 
ing panoramic views of Columbia and Illecillewaet Valleys, Clachna- 
Coodin ice-field. Lakes Eva and Millar. Winter sports resort, game 
preserve. 

Kootenay Park, British Columbia, established 1920; area 587 
sq. miles. Highway park extending 5 miles on each side of new 
Vermilion-Sinclair section of Banff-California highway. Passes 
through wonderful and practically unknown mountain scenery. 
Large rivers, towering canyons, Briscoe Range, Ice Lake, Sinclair 
Canyon, and Radium Hot Springs. Bear, deer, caribou and sheep. 

Jasper Park, Northern Alberta, established 1907; area, 4,400 
sq. miles. Immense mountain wilderness, partly unexplored, rich 
in historic associations. Numbers of unclimbed peaks, glaciers, 
snow fields, canyons, innumerable lakes of wonderful coloring. 
Athabaska valley, Maligne lake, gorge and canyon, Mt. Edith 
Cavell, Miette Hot Springs, Mt. Robson, highest known peak in 
Canada. Largest big game sanctuary in world. 

Waterton Lakes Park, Southern Alberta, adjoining U. S. 
Glacier Park, estabhshed 1895; area, 423 sq. miles. Mountains 
noted for beauty of coloring; lovely lakes, waterfalls and snow- 
peaks, excellent trout fishing, favorite camping resort. 

St. Lawrence Islands, Ontario, established 1905; area 140 
acres. Thirteen islands and one mainland reservation among the 

317 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Thousand Islands of the St. Lawrence river equipped for the use of 
summer campers and visitors. 

Broder Park, Ontario, established 1919; area 20 acres; ad- 
ditional island opposite Morrisburg recently added to above reser- 
vation. 

Pt. Pelee Park, Ontario, on Lake Erie, established May 29th, 
1918. Most southerly point in Canada; northern limit of many 
migratory birds; summer resort and bird reserve; unique fauna and 
flora. 

Buffalo Park, New Wainwright, Alberta, estabhshed 1907; 
area, 158.75 sq. miles. Fenced enclosure, home of the Government's 
great buffalo herd — 5000 buffalo, also moose, elk, deer, yak and 
cattalo. 

Elk Island Park, near Lamont, Alberta, established 1899; 
area 16 sq. miles. Smaller fenced enclosure contains about 200 
buffalo, also moose, elk and deer. 

Foremost Antelope reserve, Southern Alberta, reserved by Order 
of Minister; area 9 sq. miles. Fenced reserve containing about 
100 antelope. 

Fort Howe, New Brunswick, established 1914; area 19 acres. 
Associated with earliest history of province. Site of landing of 
United Endeavor Loyalists. 

Fort Anne, Nova Scotia, established 1917. Fort Annapolis 
Royal played important part in early history of Canada, first vessel 
constructed and first grist-mill erected in North America, the centre 
of civilization and progress in Acadia and of the fiercely contested 
struggle between France and England for the possession of the con- 
tinent. 

Canadian National Forests 

The Dominion of Canada has also in process of formation a 
great National Forest system in every way comparable to that of 
the United States. The areas already set aside are shown in the 
following memorandum: 

318 



NATIONAL PARKS AND FORESTS 

The Long Lake Forest Reserve situate in the province of Brit- 
ish Columbia; area 264.21 square miles. 

The Monte Hills Forest Reserve situate in the province of Brit- 
ish Columbia; area 182.75 square miles. 

The Martin Mountain Forest Reserve situate in the province 
of British Columbia; area 34 square miles. 

The Niskonlith Forest Reserve situate in the province of Brit- 
ish Columbia; area 318.5 square miles. 

Tranquille Forest Reserve situate in the province of British 
Columbia; area 290.6 square miles. 

Hat Creek Forest Reserve situate in the province of British 
Columbia; area 340.25 square miles. 

Larch Hills Forest Reserve situate in the province of British 
Columbia; area 25 square miles. 

Riding Mountain Forest Reserve situate in the province of 
Manitoba; area 1535 square miles. 

Turtle Mountain Reserve situate in the province of Manitoba; 
area 109.25 square miles. 

Spruce Woods Forest Reserve situate in the province of Mani- 
toba; area 224.5 square miles. 

Duck Mountain Forest Reserve No. 1 situate in the province of 
Manitoba; area 1,462.25 square miles. 

Porcupine Forest Reserve No. 1 situate in the province of 
Manitoba; area 777.5 square miles. 

Beaver Hills Forest Reserve situate in the province of Saskatche- 
wan; area 99 square miles. 

Pines Forest Reserve situate in the province of Saskatchewan; 
area 166.15 square miles. 

Moose Mountain Forest Reserve situate in the province of 
Saskatchewan; area 156 square miles. 

Porcupine Forest Reserve No. 2 situate in the province of 
Saskatchewan; area 564.75 square miles. 

Duck Mountain Forest Reserve No. 2 situate in the province 
of Saskatchewan; area 81 square miles. 

319 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Cypress Hills Forest Reserve No. 2 situate in the province of 
Saskatchewan; area, 72 square miles. 

Nisbet Forest Reserve situate in the province of Saskatchewan; 
area 149.49 square miles. 

The Cooking Lake Forest Reserve situate in the province of 
Alberta; area 111.50 square miles. 

Cypress Hills Forest Reserve No. 1 situate in the province of 
Alberta; area, 81 square miles. 

The Rocky Mountains Forest Reserve situate in the province 
of Alberta; area 20,896.65 square miles. 

Fort a la Corne Forest Reserve situate in the province of Sas- 
katchewan; area 513 square miles. 

Lesser Slave Forest Reserve situate in the province of Alberta; 
area 5,023 square miles. 

Nicola Forest Reserve situate in the province of British Co- 
lumbia; area 505.75 square miles. 

Fly Hill Forest Reserve situate in the province of British Co- 
lumbia; area 223.75 square miles. 

Arrowstone Forest Reserve situate in the province of British 
Columbia; area 255 square miles. 

Mount Ida Forest Reserve situate in the province of British 
Columbia; area 45.25 square miles. 

Study 

The pupil should study the foregoing catalogs of parks, forests 
and monuments. While it can not be expected that the ordinary 
citizen will commit to memory all these names, with the location and 
characteristics of each area, yet everyone should have a clear idea 
of the extent and importance of these reservations. Several of the 
most notable National Parks should be known by name with their 
outstanding features. 

It will certainly not be too much to require each pupil to know 
all the parks, forests and monuments which happen to be situate in 
his own state. This may be considered a fixed assignment. 

320 



NATIONAL PARKS AND FORESTS 

It is desirable further, for the sake of general information, for 
each pupil to read as many books as possible from the list of refer- 
ences given below. 

If the teacher or members of the class have visited important 
parks, forests, or monuments, it will be desirable to receive from 
them their personal accounts of the places visited. Photographs, 
lantern slides, maps and other materials are sometimes available so 
as to give additional vividness to the common knowledge of these 
reservations. All such helps should be utilized to the utmost. 

Questions 

1. What are the leading National Parks, both in the United 
States and Canada? And what are the outstanding features of each? 

2. What are the most important National Monuments? 

3. What National Forests contain especially important scenery? 

4. What are the practical and legal differences between Na- 
tional Parks, National Forests and National Monuments? 

5. Why are these Parks, Forests and Monuments mainly in 
the western states? 

6. Would it be desirable to increase such national holdings 
largely in the middle, eastern and southern states? How could it 
be done? 

7. What line of distinction should be maintained between 
National Parks and State Parks? Between National Forests and 
State Forests? 

8. Are there important areas still outside these national res- 
ervations which should be brought in either as National Parks or 
National Forests? 

Reference Readings 

Yard, Book of the National Parks. 
Allen, Guide to National Parks of America. 
MuiR, Our National Parks. 
BoERKER, Our National Forests. 

321 




LESSON 61 

State Parks 

HE purpose of this lesson is to emphasize the 
importance of state parks, to present some of 
the principles which should govern in the de- 
velopment of a state park system, and to lead 
each student most seriously to consider the con- 
ditions of his own state in this matter. 

Argument 

The immeasurable value for health and recreation of large tracts 
of virgin scenery has generally been overlooked. Yet outdoor rec- 
reation amidst wild scenery is especially appreciated by Americans. 
Up to quite recent times, however, there was so much wild country 
on this continent that no one considered the necessity of preserving 
such lands for future generations or protecting them for present use. 
But as the country has filled up, as population has increased, and as 
life has crowded into cities, these needs have become increasingly 
manifest, until now the need of such reservations of scenery is pretty 
generally acknowledged. 

Now the national provision of parks, forests and national 
monuments, magnificent though it be, is by no means sufficient. 
Especially as circumstances have determined that the largest na- 
tional reserves should be located in the areas having relatively small 
populations, leaving the crowded cities and heavily settled areas 
far from these national reserves, it becomes important that the 
states do something for themselves, and this duty is plainly most 
pressing upon those states which lie farthest from the great parks 
and forests but which have the most congested populations. 

Every state, moreover, no matter where it is located, will have 

322 



STATE PARKS 




Fig. 103. Wattekson Point, St. L.\wrence Reservation, New York State 

323 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

some areas which ought to be saved and consecrated to pubUc 
use. There will be lakes, rivers, stretches of seashore, mountains 
and other types of natural scenery for which all good citizens will 
naturally feel a deep love and reverence. There will be spots of 
special historic interest which should be preserved. All these in- 
terests can best be cared for in some sort of state park system. 

It is best at this point to avoid drawing any distinctions between 
state parks and state forests. Indeed there are other kinds of pub- 
lic lands sometimes serving admirably the purposes of state parks, 
for example reserved watersheds, military reservations, etc. Any 
fair view of a state's resources will include all such lands which are 
open to the public, and any plans for the future must give attention 
to these different forms of land holdings. 

A State's Needs 

Some effort has been made to establish a ratio of park area to 
population. For example it used to be thought that a city should 
have one acre of park to every 200 inhabitants. More lately the 
estimates have approached a ratio of one acre to each 100 inhab- 
itants. Yet vague as are these estimates they are like the exact- 
ness of pure mathematics compared with our knowledge of what 
the country needs as a whole, outside the city park systems. It is 
plain that such a ratio could hardly be followed in practice, any 
way, since densely populated states like Connecticut and Rhode 
Island could not possibly set aside so much land per capita as should 
be reserved by large states of sparser population, like Texas or 
Wisconsin. 

Evidently the size of the state is a factor, too, in the computa- 
tion. Thus we can only say that the area of park land needed varies 
directly with the size of the state and the density of population, but 
it would be impossible in the present knowledge of social science to 
represent these factors in exact figures. We may be pretty sure, 
however, that whatever may be the theoretically desirable allow- 

324 



ST A T E PA RKS 



ance of park lands for a state there will be no probability as 
matters are now going, that any state will ever get too much. If 
any state should ever, by any inconceivable chance, set aside more 
park lands than could be wisely used, then such surplus lands could 
most certainly be disposed of to advantage at any time. 

Desirable Lands 

It is of great importance that lands for parks, forests and all 
similar purposes be set aside at the earliest possible moment. As 
population grows the need for such properties increases precisely as 
the difficulty of buying them increases. Very frequently it happens 
that by the time the need is really felt the possibility of acquiring 
the desired lands has disappeared, never to return. This law does 
not spare the most treasured items of landscape nor the most sacred 
historic relics. 

One of the most important points in state park policy, there- 
fore, is to make plans many years ahead — the further into the future 
the better, — and to acquire all desirable lands just as rapidly as 
possible. 

Some of the things which should be especially regarded in making 
up a program of state parks are the following: 

1. Seashores. Any state which is so fortunate as to border 
upon the ocean should certainly save some miles of good beaches 
for the perpetual enjoyment of all its citizens. 

2. Lakes and lake shores. These should be reserved with 
special care in states like Kansas or Oklahoma where such scenery is 
rare. 

3. Rivers — certain sections of special scenic charm or recrea- 
tion value. 

4. Wild mountain lands. Such territory is usually best ad- 
apted to forestry. 

5. Non-agricultural swamp lands are also often best adapted 
to forestry. 

325 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

6. Scenic types. For example Kansas ought to have one or 
more large prairie parks to be kept as examples of the pristine 
prairies; Wisconsin should have some examples of the primeval 
pine forests. 

7. Spots of special scenic charm, such as waterfalls, glaciers, 
caves, or canyons. The Natural Bridge in Virginia, Mammoth 
Cave in Kentucky and Mt. Orford in the Province of Quebec may be 
mentioned as examples 

8. Places of historic interest. 

Administration 

There will be a tendency in most states to place parks and 
forests more and more under some central form of administration, 
mainly in bureaus of public works or of conservation, sometimes 
under special state park boards. Certain features of policy in the 
management of state lands of this sort may be laid down as follows: 

1. Acquisition of park and forest lands ought to go forward 
as rapidly as possible in accordance with well-studied programs. 

2. Acquired lands should be protected from fire, commercial 
exploitation and all forms of strip or devastation. Conservation 
is the first step in every administration program 

3. In general all these areas should be left in their natural 
condition. A partial exception may be made for forest lands which 
are to be planted. Conventional "park improvements" are es- 
pecially to be avoided. 

4. The various areas are made accessibl'^- to the public, either 
by railroads, motor roads or trails; but this opening up of territory 
need not be hastened too rapidly 

5. The charms of such scenery, the opportunities for recreation 
and the social values of these public lands must be made known to 
the citizens by sane interpretation and conservative advertising. 
Loud and bombastic propaganda is in poor taste, it is unnecessary 
and it may do more harm than good. 

326 



STATE PARKS 



Examples 

Several states have already made good beginnings in this 
field. Special mention may be made of New York, Iowa, Connecti- 
cut, Massachusetts, Wisconsin and Minnesota. Merely as an 
example the following list of Connecticut's state parks may be 
cited. 



Connecticut State Parks 



Park 


Acres 


Town 


Sherwood Island 

Hurd Park 


30 
455 
219 

84 

122 

1 

50 
5 

10 
168 

13 

22 
2000 

70 
1 

50 

90 
200 
500 

30 
835 


Westport 
East Hampton 


Mt. Tom 


Litchfield, et al. 


Mt. Bushnell 


Washington 


Selden Neck 


Lyme 


Haystack 


Norfolk 


Ivy Mountain 


Goshen 


Mohawk Mountain 

Great Hill 


Cornwall 
Portland, et al. 


West Peak . . 


Meriden, et al. 


Mashamoquet Brook 

Sap Tree Run 

Macedonia Brook 

Bolton Notch 


Pomfret 
Pomfret 
Kent 
Bolton 


Dart Island 


Middletown 


Wharton Brook 


Wallingford, et al. 

Chaplin 

Kent 


Buttonball Brook 

Kent Falls 


Hammonasset Beach 

Black Pond 


Madison 
Meriden 


Devil's Hop Yard 


East Haddam 


Total 


4955 





327 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




Fig. 164. Turkey Run, Indiana State Park 

New York state has been referred to as a leader in the move- 
ment for state parks and forests. The following list of present 
holdings is impressive: 



New York State Parks and Forests 

The Forest Preserve: 

Adirondack Park, over 3,300,000 A. of which over 1,800,000 is 

state-owned. 
Lake George Islands. 
Catskill Park, over 575,000 A. of which over 100,000 A. is 

state-owned. 
John Brown's Farm 243 A. 

St. Lawrence Reservation or International Park 181 A. 
State Reservation at Saratoga Springs 600 A. 
Cuba Reservation 500 A. 
Curtiss Game Preserve 27 A. 

328 



STATE PARKS 



State Nurseries 6 in number. 

Fish Hatcheries 12, and Game Farms 3 in number. 

Parks — Unusual scenic areas; — for recreation uses primarily: 
Fire Island Park 118 A. 
PaHsades Interstate Park about 35,000 A. 
Monhansic Lake Reservation 1100 A. 
John Boyd Thatcher Park 350 A. 
Enfield Falls Reservation 390 A. 
Clark Reservation about 75 A. 
Battle Island Park 225 A. 
Watkins Glen 103 A. 
Letchworth Park 1000 A. 
Niagara Falls State Reservation 412 A. 
Allegany State Park 65,000 A. of which 7000 A. is state-owned. 

Historical Areas: 

Phihpse Manor Hall. 

Stony Point Battlefield 35 A. 

Washington's Headquarters 6 A. 

Temple Hill 75 ft. x 75 ft. 

The Clinton House. 

The Senate House. 

The Schuyler Mansion 2 A. 

Bennington Battlefield 171 A. 

Saratoga Battle Monument 2 A. 

Stark's Knob 4 A. 

The Grant Cottage. 

Lake George Battlefield 35 A. 

Crown Point State Reservation 25 A. 

The Guy Park House. 

The Sir William Johnson Mansion and Block-house. 

The Herkimer Homestead. 

Fort Brewerton 1 A. 

Battle Island Park 225 A. 

329 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Montcalm Park. 
Spy Island 1 A. 
Newtown Battlefield 16 A. 

Areas of Geological Interest: 

Palisades Interstate Park about 35,000 A. 
John Boyd Thatcher Park 350 A. 




Fig. 165. Sugar Loaf Mountain — A Massachusetts State Park 

Lester Park 3 A. 

Stark's Knob 4 A. 

Clark Reservation about 75 A. 

Squaw Island. 

Letchworth Park 1000 A. 

Niagara Falls State Reservation 412 A. 



330 



STATE PARKS 



Study 

The pupil must first of all make a complete inventory of all the 
state parks, forests and other reservations in his state. If his state 
also contains national parks, forests or monuments, or any important 
reserves of any other nature other than state lands, these should 
also be listed, but the state properties are to be especially regarded 
in this study. This list should include a statement of where each 
area is located and its area. The compilation of this inventory may 
prove a difficult task, but it should certainly be carried out in full. 

Secondly the student should ascertain who is administratively 
responsible for these areas and what form of managenent is actually 
in force. If the state is making appropriations for maintenance the 
amount of such appropriations should be ascertained. Any other 
sources of maintenance should likewise be determined. 

Lastly the student should consider carefully what additional 
areas within his state should he set aside as parks, as forests and as 
historical reservations. Naturally these matters can not be settled 
without considerable study. Discussion in class groups will tend 
to clarify everybody's ideas. It will be well for the teacher to re- 
quire each pupil finally to make a well-studied written report on 
this subject accompanied by a state map showing existing proper- 
ties and those proposed for acquisition. 

Readings 

NoLEN, State Parks, in Park and Cemetery, Chicago, March, 1911, 
p. 687 



331 




LESSON 62 

Neighborhood Parks 

HE purpose of this lesson is to make clear the 
distinctive nature and uses of the small neigh- 
borhood park, to direct the attention of each 
student to the needs of his own neighborhood 
and to suggest methods for meeting such needs. 
Reference is made here to neighborhood parks 
and picnic grounds of a definitely rural nature. 
Parks and playgrounds in cities are designed to meet quite differ- 
ent conditions, and their selection, planning and management will 
naturally follow different rules. 

Discussion 

National parks serve to preserve the great wonders of natural 
scenery. They will be of large area and necessarily at a consider- 
able distance from the average citizen. State parks will supplement 
national parks, will preserve types of native scenery and will supply 
relatively large areas for camping, hunting, fishing, etc. There is 
still need for small neighborhood parks or picnic grounds. Every 
community, town or village should have something of this sort ^ a 
suitable place, amidst shady woods, by lake shore or streamside, 
quickly accessible, where chataquas, dances, church picnics, grange 
meetings, boy scout meetings, neighborhood and family gatherings 
of all sorts can be held. 

The area need not be large. Three or four acres of land of the 
right kind will serve admirably, though ten acres is better. While 
pleasant landscape surroundings are important, and the shade of 

332 



NEIGHBORHOOD PARKS 




Fig. 166. A Dark Pool in Holland Glen 



good trees particularly desirable, these little parks will not usually 
attempt grandiose effects in this field. The chief service to be 
sought is found in a clean, pleasant, accessible social meeting 
place. 



333 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



Administration 

Picnic grounds and neighborhood parks of this character are 
found in many communities. The ownership varies greatly, however. 

In New England, where 
town government prevails, 
the town sometimes holds 
title to such grounds, and 
this is perhaps the ideal 
ownership. Occasionally 
an incorporated village will 
own land of this nature. 
Sometimes the title is held 
by a semi-public organiza- 
tion, as by some church or 
the grange. Not infre- 
quently such parks are held 
and managed by trustees. 
A good many fairly ser- 
viceable picnic groves and 
"amusement parks" are 
owned and controlled by 
interurban trolley com- 
panies or other transporta- 
tion agencies, under which 
circumstances it is usual 
to charge an admission fee, 
or to operate concessions 
for profit. 

Any one of these forms 
of ownership may be entire- 
ly satisfactory in given 
circumstances. In a particular instance there are likely to be 
sound preferences; and it will generally be felt that the more 

334 




Fig. 167. The Mossy Rocks in Hollanh ( . 



STATE PARKS 



completely the title and management rests with the public the 
better. 

Equipment 

The equipment on 
these neighborhood parks 
ought to be simple and 
definitely adapted to well 
settled uses. Thus if base- 
ball is the favorite local 
sport, a diamond and 
bleachers will be provided. 
If the retired farmers want 
to play golf (which is cer- 
tainly better than whittling 
drygoods boxes and cursing 
the administration), the 
necessary putting greens, 
fairways and other para- 
phernalia may be supplied. 
If chataquas or similar 
meetings are to be frequent 
an assembly hall may be 
built or an outdoor theater. 
If dances are the popular 
entertainment a good floor 
is the chief necessity. If 
camping is undertaken 
there will need to be safe 
campfires built and proper attention given to water supply and 
sanitation. If swimming is customary, dressing rooms should be 
built. Parking space for automobiles will be a necessity in any 
case. 




Where thf Tr\il Goes In 



335 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Appropriate treatment consists in building those conveniences 
actually demanded by use, — and nothing else! Fanciful "orna- 
mental" features, such as fountains and flower beds, may better 
be spared. 

Example 

Herewith are reproduced photographs taken in a small neigh- 
borhood park in Belchertown, Mass. This wild ravine, known as 
Holland Glen, was saved from the ruin of the lumberman by pur- 
chase, the money being raised by popular subscription and the 
title taken by a board of trustees. The spot is a favorite picnic 
ground and the patriotic citizens of the neighborhood would not 
consent to seeing it despoiled. 

Every neighborhood has its beauty spots of this order. Clearly 
they should be preserved for the common enjoyment. The example 
of Belchertown is deserving of wide emulation. 

Study 

Each pupil should give searching study to conditions in his 
own neighborhood. If there be pupils who live in large cities and 
to whom this study does not directly apply, they should be assigned 
to the examination of some more rural community. Of course the 
first step will be to ascertain what provision of neighborhood parks 
and picnic grounds now exists in the community under study. 

Next the question must be asked and answered whether this 
provision is satisfactory. Has the best spot been chosen? Is it 
owned and managed to the best public good? Is it properly 
equipped? 

In case it appears that existing provisions are nil or inadequate 
the pupil should next determine what needs are to be met; then 
what land can be found which will best serve these needs, then what 
form of ownership and management are most likely to suit the 

336 



STATE PARKS 



circumstances, and how the funds are to be raised for financing the 
project; lastly, what equipment may be necessary. 

Report on these points should be made in writing, accom- 
panied by maps, surveys, photographs, etc. Class discussion of 
these reports will be very desirable. 



337 



LITERATURE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

The field of landscape gardening has a large, rich and delightful 
literature. Any student of the subject ought to read widely. 

Some books, naturally, deal with history, others with artistic 
theory, others with engineering phases of the subject, many with 
plant materials. It is not to be expected that any one book will 
expound everything. 

Fortunately a very large part of the best literature of land- 
scape gardening is in the English language. Much of it is American 
and much of it is recent. The best is therefore easily accessible. 

Every serious student ought to expect to buy a few of the best 
books for himself. He must use some care, however, to make sure 
that he is really buying the best books and passing over those which 
are merely showy. 

Every school in which landscape gardening is taught will need 
a reference library including the leading modern works and as many 
others as funds will buy. The selection of such a reference library 
is a matter requiring much thought and investigation. 

The following list of books is offered with some misgivmgs. 
While it probably includes all the works of most immediate value in 
the course outlined in the foregoing pages, it is by no means com- 
plete, judged by any standard. In order to bring the list within 
practicable compass and in order to avoid the mistake of confusing 
the teacher or the pupil not already familiar with this field, it has 
been necessary to offer a relatively short list, excluding many in- 
dubitably good books. Some of the books included are certainly 
no better than some of those left out, but specific comparisons of 
this invidious sort would nevertheless be unnecessary, futile, and 
unfair. It is hoped that this list will be of service to the teacher 
making up a small reference library or to the student choosing a 
few books for himself. 

338 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Acre. Garden Design, London, 1911. 

Ad.\ms, Rural Planning, Ottawa, 1917. Contains much useful matter and 
discussion of principles. Very useful in the field of country planning. 

Allen, Guide to National Parks of America, New York, 1918. Includes 
notes on Canadian parks. 

Andre, L'Art des Jardins, Paris, 1879. A classic work. 

Angier, Garden Book of California, San Francisco, 1906. 

Bailey, Manual of Gardening, New York, 1911. A valuable handbook of 
practical gardening. 

Bailey, Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, New York, 1916. An indis- 
pensable reference work. 

Barron, Lawns, New York, 1910. 

Blanch.\n, American Gardens, New York. 

Boerker, Our National Forests, JNiew York, 1918. 

Burnap, Parks, Their Design, Equipment and Use. Philadelphia, 1916. 
A rather full and effective discussion of the problems involved. 

Cable, Amateur Garden, New York, 1914. 

Challman, The Rural School Plant, Milwaukee, 1917. 

Downing, Landscape Gardening, 10 Ed., New York, 1921. A recent re- 
vision of a famous old American work. 

Earle, Old Time Gardens, New York, 1901. Pleasant reading with many 
photographs. 

Earle, Sundials and Roses of Yesterday. New York, 1902. Delightful 
talks about old-fashioned gardens. 

Eliot, Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect, Boston, 1903. A valuable per- 
sonal memoir. 

Ely, The Practical Flower Garden, New York, 1911. 

Farwell, Village Improvement, New York, 1913. Exactly follows its title. 
Well worth reading. 

Gilpin, Landscape Gardening, London, 1832. A famous book and most 
important in its day. Its present value is chiefly historical. 

Godfrey, Gardens in the Making, London, 1914. Some useful material in 

this work. 
H.\MBLiN, Book of Garden Plans, New York, 1916. Interesting detailed 

matter for careful study. 
Holland, Garden Blue Book, New York, 1915. 

339 



TEXTBOOK OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Hubbard and Kimball, Landscape Design, New York, 1917. An extended 

discussion of the tiieory of design as applied to landscape gardening. 
Jaeger, Gartenkunst Sonst and Jetzt, 1885, German. The most elaborate 

history of landscape gardening. 
Jekyll, Wood and Garden, London, 1908. 

Kellaway, How to Lay Out Suburban Home Grounds, New York, 1907. 
Kemp, Landscape Gardening, New York, 1911. American revision of an 

old English work. 
King, The Little Garden, Boston, 1921. 

King, The Well-Considered Garden, New York, 1915. A readable and en- 
tertaining book. 
Kirkegaard, Practical Handbook of Trees, Shrubs, Vines and Herbaceous 

Perennials, Boston, 1916. A convenient list of plant materials. 
Lange, Die Gartengestaltung der Neuzeit, Leipzig, 1907. Presents some 

original and important ideas. 
Lounsberry, Gardens Near the Sea, New York, 1910. 
McFarland, My Growing Garden, New York, 1915. Breezy, interesting 

garden lore arranged by the calendar. 
Mero, American Playground, New York, 1909. 
MiGGE, Gartenkultur des 20. Jahrhunderts, Jena, 1913. Many valuable 

ideas and drawings from the Germany of pre-war times. 
Miller, What England can Teach Us About Gardening, New York. 
MuiR, Our National Parks, Boston, 1901. Valuable and delightful. 
Northend, Garden Ornaments, New York, 1916. 
Parsons, Landscape Gardening, New York, 1891, 
Peets, Practical Tree Repair, New York, 1916. 
Platt, Italian Gardens, New York, 1894. 
PucKLER-MusKAU, Landscape Gardening, American edition, edited by 

Samuel Parsons, Boston, 1917. A translation of a famous old work in 

German. 
Rehmann, The Small Place, New York, 1918. 
Repton, Landscape Gardening, American edition edited by Nolen, Boston, 

1907. Carefully edited extracts from the work of England's greatest 

landscape gardener. 
Robinson, William, The English Flower Garden, London, 1883. 
Robinson, William, The Garden Beautiful. London, 1907. 
Robinson, Charles Mulford, City Planning, New York, 1916. 
Rogers, Garden Planning. New York, 1911. Much good matter on the 

subject specified in the title. 
Root, Design in Landscape Gardening, New York, 1914. An analytical 

study of underlying principles. 
Root, (editor) Landscape Garden Series. Davenport, 1921. 

340 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 



Scott, Suburban Home Grounds, New York, 1870. Of some historical in- 
terest. 

Sedgwick and Cameron, The Garden Month by Month, New York, 1907. 
Much useful matter concerning flowering plants conveniently arranged. 

SiMONDS, Landscape Gardening, New York, 1920. A modern discussion by 
a master landscape gardener. 

SoLOTAROFF, Shade Trees in Towns and Cities, New York, 1911. 

Tabor, Suburban Gardens, New York, 1913. A practical book for prac- 
tical garden makers. 

Taylor, The Complete Garden, New York, 1921. Contains extended and 
detailed lists of plants for many different purposes. Most valuable 
in studying planting plans. 

Thronger, Book of Garden Furniture, London, 1903. 

Underwood, The Garden and its Accessories, Boston, 1907. Valuable 
pictures and discussion of garden furnishings. 

Van Rensellaer, Art Out-of-Doors, New York, 1893. An enlightening 
discussion of principles. 

Waugh, Landscape Beautiful, New York, 1910. Discursive essays on land- 
scape gardening and the natural landscape. 

Waugh, Landscape Gardening, New York, 1900. An elementary textbook. 

Waugh, The Natural Style in Landscape Gardening, Boston, 1917. 

Waugh, Outdoor Theaters, Boston, 1917. 

Waugh, Rural Improvement, New York, 1915. 

Weed, Modern Park Cemeteries, Chicago, 1912. 

Wilson, Romance of Our Trees, New York, 1920. 

Wolseley, Gardens, etc., London, 1919. Some worth-while data. 

Yard, Book of the National Parks, New York, 1919. The standard work on 
this subject. 



341 



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

Many persons have contributed to the materials in this book. 
It is impossible to name them all. 

Plans or drawings have been supplied by the following land- 
scape architects: F. A. Gushing Smith, Ghicago; Professor Frank 
H. Gulley, Ames, Iowa; R. J. Pearse, Des Moines, Iowa; Francis 
A. Robinson, Des Moines, Iowa; R. R. Root, Ghicago, Illinois; 
Joseph F. Whitney, Amherst, Mass.; William E. Philbrick, Taunton, 
Mass.; 0. G. Simonds, Ghicago, Illinois (courtesy of MacMillan 
Gompany, New York), Samuel D. Zehrung, Dayton, Ohio. I am 
especially indebted to my daughter, Dorothy Waugh, for many 
of the best designs and drawings in this book. 

Photographs have been contributed by Professor John W. 
Gregg, Galifornia; Professor Henry R. Francis, Syracuse, N. Y.; 
the United States Forest Service and National Park Service, Wash- 
ington, D. G.; Mr. 0. P. Beckley, Harrisburg, Penn., and many 
others. Wherever possible acknowledgement of photographs is 
made with the reproductions. With rare exceptions photographs 
not specifically credited are made by the author. 

The chapters dealing with surveying are largely made up from 
the notes of my associate. Professor Arthur K. Harrison, to whom 
special thanks are due for this and much other effective help. 

To all who have helped in whatever manner most cordial thanks 
are offered. 

FRANK A. WAUGH 



342 



INDEX 



Andre, Edouard, design by, 55 
Architectural Materials, xv 
Art, 1 
Automobile Turn, 63 

Baseball Field, 88 
Bibliography, 339 
Bowling Green, 94 
Brick Walk, 17 
Brooks, 288 

Cemetery Entrance, 58 
Cemetery Improvement, 224 
Cemetery Lot, 66 
Church Grounds, 165 
Civic Art, xv 
Civic Center, 210 
Climbing Vines, 250 
Compass, 34 
Compass Survey, 41 
Connecticut State Park, 327 
Contours, 51 
Country Road, 279 
Country Road Systems, 231 
Country School Grounds, 216 
Country Fair Grounds, 199 
Course of Study, xvi 
Court-House Square, 174 
CuUey, Frank H., map by, 176 

Deciduous Trees, 236 

Definitions, 1 

Design, 13 

Design, Principles, xv 

Domestic Problems of Landscape, 

Drawing, xiv 



Elwood, Phillip H., Jr., design by, 

158-218 
Enlarging and Reducing Plans, 24 
Entrance Road, 55 
Evergreen Trees, 240 

Farmstead Group, 144 
Farmstead Layout, 157 
Formal Garden, 128 
Foundation Planting, 261 

Garden Gate, 108 

Garden in the Natural Style, 137 

Garden Seat, 103 

Government Survey Road Plan, 232 

Hand Level, 45 
Hardy Perennials, 254 
Hardy Shrubs, 242 

Introduction, 1 

Landscape Links, 295 
Landscape Types, 288 
Lange, Willy, design by, 58 
Leveling, 45 

Literature of Landscape Gardening, 
338 

Mapping Contours, 51 
Materials, 22 
Measuring Distances, 41 
Mixed Border, 269 
Motive, 10 



National Parks and Forests, 303 
Native Landscape, xv-272 



343 



INDEX 



Natural Style in Landscape Garden- 
ing, 137 
Neighborhood Parks, 332 
New England Farm Group, 153 
New England Road Plan, 233 
New York State Parks, 328 

Olmsted Brothers, design by, 195 
Outdoor Theater, 160 

Pace Survey, 28 

Pantograph, 25 

Park Entrance, 61 

Pearse, R. J., design by, 144 

Perennials, 254 

Plant Materials, xiv 

Playground, 195 

Principles, 7 

Proportional Dividers, 26 

Purcell & Elmslie, design by, 163 

Railroad Station Grounds, 168 
Robinson, Francis A., design by, 200 
Root, R. R., design by, 270 

Scaling Plans, 21 

Shrubbery Border, 266 

Simonds, 0. C, design by, 125 

Small House Lot, 112 

Small Town Square, 189 

Smith, F. A. Gushing, design by, 61-67 



State Forests, 322 

State Parks, 322 

Streets, Cross Sections, 70 

Streets, General Study, 75 

Street Trees, Results, 85 

Street Trees, Technical Studies, 82 

Street Trees, Varieties, 78 

Styles, 1 

Suburban Home Grounds, 118-124 

Surveying, xiv 

Tennis Court, 91 
Town Common, 178 
Trees, 235 

Unity, 7 

Use of Compass, 34 

Utility and Beauty, 4 

Variety, 8 
Village Center, 96 
Vines, 250 

Waugh, Dorothy, design by, 109 
Waugh, Frank A., design by, 214-220 
Weil-Head, 99 

Weston, Mass., Village Center, 96 
Wirth, Theodore, design by, 193-197 
Whitney, Joseph F., design by, 104 

Zehrung, Samuel D., design by, 212 



344 



MAY 1 8 1099 



